35 Then James and John, the sons of Zebedee, came to him. "Teacher," they said, "we want you to do for us whatever we ask."
36 "What do you want me to do for you?" he asked.
37 They replied, "Let one of us sit at your right and the other at your left in your glory."
38 "You don't know what you are asking," Jesus said. "Can you drink the cup I drink or be baptized with the baptism I am baptized with?"
39 "We can," they answered. Jesus said to them, "You will drink the cup I drink and be baptized with the baptism I am baptized with, 40 but to sit at my right or left is not for me to grant. These places belong to those for whom they have been prepared."
41 When the ten heard about this, they became indignant with James and John. 42 Jesus called them together and said, "You know that those who are regarded as rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. 43 Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, 44 and whoever wants to be first must be slave of all. 45 For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many."
Son of Thunder, Son of God
Mark 10:35-45
Sermon
by Donald B. Strobe
I just love the story of Jordan Gollub. It came out of Religious News Service in June of 1989. It seems that Jordan Gollub was leader of the Mississippi Christian Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. (Now there’s a contradiction in terms for you!) At least he was until they discovered that he was born of Jewish parents. Then they kicked him out. Thus, this bigot found himself ousted by his own bigoted group! The article says that he now plans to start his own organization, so he can kick everybody else out, I suppose. It’s going to be a pretty small group in the end! Jordan Gollub was a bigot who was “hoist on his own petard.” Did you know that the term “bigot” comes from “by God,” and began as a term applied to those of one religious group who wished to denounce the other? Unfortunately, the Church has had too many people like that. People who wanted to throw other people out because they did not express their faith in exactly the same words, or follow exactly the same rules. These people are “bigots.”
I. IN THE BEGINNING, JOHN, THE SON OF ZEBEDEE, WAS ONE OF THEM. Last week we talked about James, one of the sons of Zebedee who, with their father, owned a fishing business on the Sea of Galilee. Well, James had a younger brother John, who eventually became the more famous of the two. Luke says that they were “partners with Simon” Peter. (Luke 5:10) Mark also refers to “hired servants” which implies that the family was well-to-do, and they all hailed from the little fishing village of Bethsaida, near Capernaum. They were mending their nets when Jesus came along and called them to be His followers. Over the years, John maintained close connection with Simon Peter and, together with his older brother John, was even one of the “Inner Circle” of the Twelve who were always with Jesus whenever something of significance occurred. Together with Peter, John was even sent to prepare the last Passover Feast for Jesus and the other disciples. (Luke 22:8)
William Barclay says that “In the first three Gospels John seldom appears apart from James; for the most part James and John are inseparable, and act and speak as one. From these Gospels there emerges a vivid picture of John—the strange thing is that it is not an attractive one.” (THE MASTER’S MEN, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1959, p.29) You see, the only time that John appears by himself, he seems to be acting in a mood of such embarrassing intolerance that Jesus had to rebuke him! He said, “Teacher, we saw a man casting out demons in your name, and we forbade him, because he was not following us.” (Mark 9:38) The strange thing is that this event follows close upon the heels of an unsuccessful exorcism on the part of the disciples themselves. They seem to have been embarrassed at their own conspicuous lack of success, and the only thing they could think to do is to point their finger of criticism at someone else who was not only doing their job, but who seemed to be having more success with it than they were!
Luke’s order of things follows Mark’s pretty closely. Jesus teaches about the real meaning of greatness, but the dumb disciples do not get the message. There seems to be a connection between concern for one’s own status and willingness to put down others. We seem to have the feeling that life is a teeter-totter, and that in order for us to rise, somebody else must fall. The assumption in both Mark and Luke is that we are the “chosen people.” John felt that they had a copyright on Jesus, and nobody else had any right to use His name. His kind are not all dead yet! As the Interpreter’s Bible comments, “This was not the last time that a group, whether large or small, has set itself up as the sole medium of God’s action in Christ.” (New York and Nashville: Abingdon-co*kesbury Press, 1951, Vol. 8, p. 180) There is even a poem which some Christians are supposed to have sung during the middle ages: “We are God’s chosen people, let all the rest be damned; God’s love is just for us alone, we can’t have heaven crammed!” (I actually saw an ad in the Saturday Church pages of a newspaper years ago for the “Original Church of God, Number Two.”) Evidently, at least some of the disciples believed that nobody could act in Christ’s name except them. They got rattled when, in fact, someone was acting in Christ’s name and doing it rather more effectively than they were!
One reason that religious bigotry is so prevalent is that once a person has become convinced that something is right, there is a natural tendency to try to make everyone else over in his or her own image. Anyone who tries to impose his or her own will on others and insist that they must all think alike, or have exactly the same religious experience, simply misses the boat. Paul Tournier, the Christian Swiss psychiatrist comments: “Love always means going to others, not demanding that they come to us. Nothing is more tragic and cruel than the spiritual tyranny we meet so often. He who has had a rich experience wants to impose it upon others, no holds barred, in order to save them. However, he does not realize the infinite variety of ways by which each person needs to find what he is seeking...” Let’s face it: the world will not be saved by having several hundred million people exactly like us. We are all different, and I think God approves of those differences. Just because we have found something good does not mean that everyone else must have the same thing, even if it is a good thing. Abraham Maslow tells of a kitchen employee who was so good at opening cans that one day he opened every can in the hotel. We don’t need everyone to do the same thing. We don’t need clones; we need Christians!
We do know that both John and his brother James were men of violent temper. When Mark gives his list of the Twelve in Chapter 3, he says that Jesus even gave them a nickname: “Boanerges,” i.e., “Sons of Thunder.” Luke 9:54 tells us that when Jesus and his disciples left Galilee for Jerusalem and a Samaritan village refused to welcome them, James and John wished to “bid fire come down from heaven and consume them,” but they were rebuked by Jesus. Very early on, Jesus had to remind them that He and his followers were called to save, not destroy—a lesson which some of Jesus’ followers haven’t quite learned even yet! (Have you ever seen one of those “Kill a Commie for Christ” bumper stickers? It is enough to make an atheist out of you!) I remember that during the debate over school prayer back in the sixties, one congressman who did not want to get the government mixed up in religion, noting all the hate mail he had received, asked, “What is there about the thought of God which brings out the worst in people?”
There is something in every one of us that cherishes the idea of revenge. If we are rejected, put upon, or put down, our natural inclination is to put down the one who has put us down. There is a story about a middle-aged woman who was in a bookstore. She was in a foul mood and was taking it out on one of the clerks. She accused him of never stocking the books she wanted to read and always being out of the current best sellers. The poor clerk, trying to maintain his composure, asked her, “Well, what is the title of the book you want to purchase?” She answered, “‘How to Remain Young and Beautiful.’” The clerk, with a sarcastic smile on his face answered, “Very well, I will place your order for ‘How to Remain Young and Beautiful’—and I will mark it URGENT.” He had his revenge. Most of us can appreciate that very basic human emotion. But Jesus does not. And that should be the deciding factor for us.
II. THE OTHER EVENT FOR WHICH JOHN IS BEST KNOWN ISN’T A VERY NICE ONE, EITHER. I spoke about it last week. It reeks of selfish ambition and personal aggrandizement. Mark tells how James and John came to Jesus with the request for front-row seats in the Kingdom of God. Mark tells us that the rest of the twelve resented them for pushing themselves forward. Probably because they had their eyes on those seats for themselves! At any rate, I don’t blame them! Don’t you hate it when somebody pushes himself to the head of the line? Now, when Matthew tells the story of James and John he softens it a bit. He attributes this ambitious request to their mother (Matthew 20:20-29). The reason for the change in the story is this: Matthew was writing perhaps thirty years later than Mark. By that time the early Church had begun to look upon the apostles as princes and foundation stones of the Church, and it is only natural that he would want to soften the story a bit. I like the way Mark tells it, though. It makes those twelve so human. John was a “son of thunder” who wanted to put a stop to others not of his own group who were using Jesus’ name. Jesus had to rebuke him for it, and that rebuke must have stung. But it seems to have stuck.
III. IN THE FOURTH GOSPEL, THERE APPEARS A CHARACTER WHO IS CALLED “THE BELOVED DISCIPLE.” The Upper Room story has an unnamed individual reclining “on Jesus’ breast” (John 13:23). Remember that in those days, Passover meals were eaten reclining, in Roman fashion, and the Fourth Gospel places this “beloved disciple” in close proximity to Jesus. “One of his disciples, whom Jesus loved, was lying close to the breast of Jesus.” (John 13:23) The oldest tradition says that this disciple was John. In ancient times there was absolutely no doubt of this. However, in recent years some other theories have been advanced. Most of them are quite fanciful, but the one that must be taken with the most seriousness is that “the disciple whom Jesus loved” and who reclined next to Him at the Last Supper was Lazarus, the brother of Mary and Martha, whom Jesus raised from the dead. He is the only disciple in the New Testament who is specifically called “one whom Jesus loved.” (John 11:5.) There is also the man we call the “Rich Young Ruler,” of whom Mark says that Jesus “beholding him, loved him,” but he never became a disciple. He couldn’t let go of his possessions long enough to become possessed by Jesus’ love. Tradition also ascribes to the Apostle John the First Letter of John. But, for some reason, more recent scholars have been reluctant to affirm that the “Beloved Disciple” and the author of I John was St. John the Apostle.
The great argument which is used against identifying the apostle John with the Beloved Disciple and the author of I John, is the difference in their characters. The Gospels portray John as an angry, intolerant character, while the Beloved Disciple is a figure of love. Now, I am not a great Biblical scholar, and I realize that the linguistic experts can tell us all kinds of things about the differences in writing style and syntax between the several books in the New Testament which happen to have the name “John” appended to them. But I cannot reject the notion that the First Letter of John was written by John the Apostle simply because it sounds so out of character. THAT IS PRECISELY THE POINT! The point in the New Testament message is that Jesus Christ came into the world to change our characters! The very point of the Gospel is that Christ can take a “Son of thunder” and make him a “Son of God”...or “daughter of God.” Christ can take us and recycle us! He can take all of these natural impulses and reactions which cause so much trouble in human life—the desire to be out front, to get ahead of others, to put others down—change them, and turn us around. Again and again in the history of the Church, Christ has taken men and women who seem to be the last people on earth who would be candidates for discipleship, called them, and made them into something new. Bigots have become lovers, cowards have become heroes, foolish people have become wise, all because of the influence of Christ upon them. And what the old Gospel song says is true: “It is no secret what God can do; what He’s done for others, he will do for you.”
Early in my ministry I remember hearing a story of a preacher who said in a sermon: “You cannot change human nature.” To which someone in the back row shouted out, “Thank God that’s a lie!” The fact of the matter is that of all things on this earth, human nature is the one thing which can most easily be changed...provided that it is overwhelmed by the love of God in Jesus Christ. So a “Son of thunder,” I believe, became a “Son of God.”
St. Jerome, who lived and wrote in a cave in Bethlehem under the Church of the Nativity at the end of the Fourth Century, hands down to us a fragment of tradition which says that John lived in Ephesus to an extreme old age, “...and could only with difficulty be carried to the church in the arms of his disciples, and was unable to give utterance to many words. He used to say no more at their several meetings than this: ‘Little children, love one another.’ At length the disciples and fathers who were there, wearied with always hearing the same words, said, ‘Master, why dost thou always say this?’ ‘It is the Lord’s command,’ was his reply, ‘and, if this alone be done, it is enough.’” (Commentary on Galatians 6, 10.) So, at the end, John had forgotten all about calling down fire from heaven, all about reprimanding those who did things differently. All he could remember was his Lord’s command of love. Go, and do thou likewise. ˜
Dynamic Preaching, Collected Words, by Donald B. Strobe
Overview: Jesus leads the way to Jerusalem. The crowds are astonished, while the disciples are afraid. Something big is about to happen. For the third time Jesus announces his approaching passion. He will be betrayed, condemned by the Jewish leaders, and tortured and killed by the gentiles, but three days later he will rise (10:33–34). What happens next makes us drop our jaws in disbelief. Not only do the disciples not get it, James and John have the gall to ask for the seats of honor when Jesus sets up his kingdom (10:35–37). Jesus flatly tells them that they don’t know what they are asking, since they have omitted suffering (symbolized by “the cup” and “the baptism”) from their glorious request (10:38–40). Their boasting in verse39 reminds us of Peter’s later boast that he would never f…
The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016
35 Then James and John, the sons of Zebedee, came to him. "Teacher," they said, "we want you to do for us whatever we ask."
36 "What do you want me to do for you?" he asked.
37 They replied, "Let one of us sit at your right and the other at your left in your glory."
38 "You don't know what you are asking," Jesus said. "Can you drink the cup I drink or be baptized with the baptism I am baptized with?"
39 "We can," they answered. Jesus said to them, "You will drink the cup I drink and be baptized with the baptism I am baptized with, 40 but to sit at my right or left is not for me to grant. These places belong to those for whom they have been prepared."
41 When the ten heard about this, they became indignant with James and John. 42 Jesus called them together and said, "You know that those who are regarded as rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. 43 Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, 44 and whoever wants to be first must be slave of all. 45 For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many."
The failure of the disciples to understand the way of Jesus is exposed with acid clarity in 10:35–45, where, immediately following Jesus’s announcement of his impending humiliation, James and John ask for fame. James and John think of God’s kingdom in terms of benefits. Jesus, however, speaks of the costs of participating in it in terms of a “cup” and “baptism” (10:38), both metaphors of suffering. The brothers assure Jesus of their willingness to bear the costs of discipleship. Despite their assurance, Jesus declares that the rewards of glory are hidden in the eternal purpose of God (10:40). Disciples are not to follow Jesus because of future rewards but because they wish to be with Jesus—wherever he leads.
The other disciples are “indignant” with James and John for their request of special honor, perhaps because they secretly have hoped for it themselves (10:41). The dissension among the Twelve becomes the pretext for one of Jesus’s most important lessons and self-revelations. Earthly rulers and officials, says Jesus, “exercise authority” (10:42)—and usually with severity. The beginning of verse 43 reads in Greek: “It is not this way among you”; that is, this is not the way the kingdom of God works. Repeating the lesson of 9:35, Jesus solemnly declares that the preeminent value of God’s kingdom is not power, prestige, or authority, but service (10:43). The idea of a “slave”—a position of absolute inferiority in the ancient world—being “first” was as paradoxical as the idea of a camel going through the eye of a needle (10:25). Disciples must practice service rather than authority because it is Jesus’s posture: “The Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many” (10:45). Jesus calls disciples not to an ethical system but to “the way of the Lord” (Mark 1:3), the very pattern of the incarnation. A servant is preeminent because a servant gives, and giving is the essence of God, who gave his Son for the sins of the world. In describing the Son of Man as giving “his life as a ransom for many” (10:45), Jesus appropriates the unique description of the servant of the Lord in Isaiah 53:10–11. The servant is the only figure in the Old Testament whose suffering is vicariously effective for others. Verse 45 attests to Jesus’s supreme consciousness of his impending suffering and death in Jerusalem as a “ransom for many,” a self-substitution on behalf of all humanity.
The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Big Idea: Once more the disciples fail by seeking greatness rather than servanthood, and the right “path” is shown by Bartimaeus, who centers entirely on Jesus and “follows” him “along the road.” Jesus is central, and here he reveals that his way of suffering is redemptive, providing a “ransom for many,” and ends his public ministry with a call to discipleship.
Understanding the Text
This is the final set of events in Jesus’s public ministry, as the rest of Mark will cover the passion week, crucifixion, and resurrection. The “road to Jerusalem” has centered on two things: the passion predictions (the final and most detailed of the three is here) and discipleship (Jesus calling his followers to join him on the path of servanthood and suffering). So this passage sums up the emphases of 8:31–10:52 and prepares the way for the passion events to follow (the complex prediction in vv. 32–34 points forward to those events).
Interpretive Insights
10:32 on their way up to Jerusalem. Jerusalem, the holy city, is the God-appointed destiny of Jesus where he will provide atonement through his sacrificial death. The “way,” or travel narrative, has been emphasized throughout this journey from Caesarea Philippi (8:27; 9:33; 10:17, 32). Jesus “leading [proag?] the way” looks forward to 14:28; 16:7 (the same verb as here) and Jesus “going ahead” of the disciples to Galilee. Jesus determines the path that believers follow.
astonished... afraid. As before, the disciples are “amazed” (6:51; 10:24, 26), this time at the authority and power of his resolve as he “leads the way.” There is debate about whether the “followers” are the disciples themselves or a separate group of anonymous followers (likely pilgrims headed for Jerusalem—a slightly better option).1They are “afraid,” most likely not feeling awe but fear at the momentous events about to take place.
10:33 the Son of Man will be delivered. The first part of this passion prediction has been given earlier (8:31; 9:31), stating that God will hand Jesus over to the Jewish authorities. The rest adds a great deal of detail, functioning as almost a “table of contents” for the events of the passion. The major debate is whether the passion predictions are vaticinia ex eventu(predictions after the event), but there is little reason to doubt that the extreme opposition to Jesus (e.g., 3:6) made him aware of their intention to kill him, and his knowledge of what was going to happen makes perfect sense.2
10:34 mock... spit on... flog... kill him. All four were done by the Romans and look forward to 15:15–25. R.T.France points out that each one “is included in the ‘blueprint’ for the suffering of the Isaianic servant (mockery and spitting, Is. 50:6; 53:3; cf. also Ps. 22:7; scourging, Is. 50:6; 53:5; death, 53:8–9, 12).”3
10:37 Let one of us sit at your right and the other at your left in your glory. The disciples have not learned their lesson from 9:33–37; 10:15, 31; discipleship failure continues. They still long for greatness and status. The hubris of James and John here is hard to comprehend. Jesus again has talked about his coming death, and they are saying in effect, “Great, so when you die and are resurrected, we want to reign with you!” They have listened only to what he said about coming in glory with the holy angels (8:38). They understand who he is—the Messiah—but they realize neither why he has come nor their part in it. Mark places the guilt squarely on them for dramatic effect; Matthew 20:20–21 tells us that in reality they had their mother make the request, probably thinking that Jesus would have more difficulty saying no to her.4
10:38 Can you drink the cup... be baptized with the baptism...? Jesus knew what they failed to realize: suffering and sacrifice were the path to glory. They wanted the rewards without the cost. So Jesus uses two metaphors: a “cup” and a “baptism.” In the Old Testament the cup symbolized one’s destiny, especially the cup of suffering from which one drinks God’s wrath (Ps. 75:8; Isa. 51:17; Jer. 25:15; 51:7). Jesus’s death is a “cup” in the Gethsemane prayer (14:36). As for “baptism,” the metaphor of submersion is used of a calamity in one’s life (Job 9:31; 22:11; Pss. 42:7; 46:3; Isa. 43:2) or of divine judgment in Isaiah 30:28.5
10:39 We can. In their desire to be princes in the final kingdom, James and John think of the cup as the golden goblet of royalty, and the baptism as an anointing to highest office. “Of course we can do that!” they say. So when Jesus exclaims, “You will indeed experience my cup and baptism,” they have no clue what that means. Yet James will be martyred at the hands of Herod in Acts 12, and John will be exiled on Patmos and will die about AD96, shortly after finishing the book of Revelation.
10:40 not for me to grant. It is God who is in charge of eternal rewards, and Jesus makes himself subordinate to his Father, as he often does (13:32; John 5:19–23). As the God-man, Jesus is fully God and fully man, which thus involves limitations in Jesus’s incarnate walk on earth. James and John have no right to ask for such places, for God alone decides, and the places belong only to those for whom they were “prepared,” a divine passive meaning that the choice is entirely God’s. The Twelve were promised that they would sit on “twelve thrones judging Israel” (Matt. 19:28), but not the two seats of power.
10:42–44 rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them... Not so with you. The rest of the disciples undoubtedly are jealous of the request for power and become angry (“They would rather bear a grudge than a cross”),6so Jesus repeats the warning against selfish ambition from 9:35–37; 10:14–15, 31. They are acting like the despised Gentiles (especially the Romans), who in a patron-client society identified importance and status with absolute authority, “lording it over” others. They must place themselves as both “servant” (diakonos) and “slave” (doulos)—that is, consider their leadership as a humble privilege for them to serve the people to whom God sent them. We are now at the heart of the radical new ethical system that Jesus introduced and demonstrated: greatness through taking the lowest place (Phil. 2:5–11).
10:45 to give his life as a ransom for many. Jesus as the Son of Man is the final model for a life of servanthood. This is rightly one of the most well-known and discussed sayings in Mark,7 with profound theological implications. “Giving his life” alludes to the Suffering Servant of Isaiah 53:10, 12 (“he poured out his life unto death ... bore the sin of many”) and becomes a virtual definition of servanthood (as in Phil. 2:7–8). This defines Jesus’s understanding of his own messianic mission: he came to purchase our salvation with his death (on “ransom,” see the sidebar).
10:46 they came to Jericho ... leaving the city. Mark and Matthew 20:29 have the action occurring as they “leave,” while Luke 18:35 has it as they are “approaching.” The answer is that there was an old city (still somewhat occupied) and a rebuilt city (by Herod). Mark recognizes both aspects; Jesus may have been moving between the two. Jericho is the oldest city in the world (from 9000BC) and was the place where pilgrims crossed over the Jordan and began the walk upward to Jerusalem (fifteen miles away and 3,300 feet higher in elevation).
10:47 Jesus, Son of David, have mercy on me! Most blind people had only one choice in the ancient world: begging. Someone says that Jesus is coming, and Bartimaeus obviously has heard of his healing power. His use of the title “Son of David” shows a deep christological commitment and understanding. At the least, he appeals to Jesus as the Davidic Messiah, the king of the Jews, so this prepares for the triumphal entry and significance of the passion events. Jesus as the royal Messiah who heals the nation’s sins is likely in this context. The presence of Bartimaeus’s appeal to Jesus twice in the narrative depicts him as the archetypal seeker who aggressively throws himself at Jesus. The more the crowd rebukes him, the louder he shouts.
10:51 Rabbi, I want to see. When Bartimaeus comes, Jesus knows his desire but still wants him to vocalize his needs. The man’s response “demonstrates enough faith to transform him from a blind man begging along the way (10:46; see 4:4, 15) to a person who sees and follows Jesus on the way (10:52).”8
10:52 he received his sight and followed Jesus along the road. Bartimaeus leaves the “roadside” and follows Jesus on the “road/way.” Discipleship is the main thrust here. Bartimaeus’s being “saved” (s?z? [NIV: “healed”]) involves both physical healing (3:4; 5:23, 28; 6:56) and spiritual healing (8:35; 10:26; 13:13).9The combination of faith (cf. 5:34) and following Jesus “on the way” is intended as a conclusion to Jesus’s ministry and of the discipleship theme this far. As with the blind man in 8:22–26, this healing symbolizes the process of joining Jesus on the path of following God.
Theological Insights
Once more the passage combines Christology and discipleship, as Jesus knows that his messianic path is one of suffering, for he will give his life to provide a “ransom for many” (v.45), a payment that will purchase the freedom of humankind from the bondage of sin. As before, the disciples fail, desiring glory rather than sacrifice or servanthood. The archetypal disciple is none of them but rather is Bartimaeus, who seeks only “mercy” and throws himself entirely under the care of Jesus. That is the only path to greatness.
Teaching the Text
1. Jesus predicts his path of suffering. Jesus knew that the purpose of his incarnation was his death. The meaning of Christmas is found in Good Friday. Jesus revealed this first when he spoke of “the time” when “the bridegroom will be taken away from them” (2:20). He also recognized that his death was to be vicarious, predicted in his messianic office as the Isaianic Suffering Servant (Isa. 53:4–5) as seen in 10:45; 14:24. The purpose of Jesus’s predictions is to prepare the disciples for the difficult days to come but even more to define his death further. It is the Danielic Son of Man who is to give up his life, so his death will be his victory. The theme is an essential part of New Testament theology: suffering as the path to glory. Death will end in resurrection, seeming defeat in absolute victory.
2. Our walk with Jesus is done in imitation of him. Discipleship is defined in Mark as “following Jesus on the way” (as did Bartimaeus), meaning that we are expected to live our lives in constant imitation of him. Walking the path of Jesus is never presented as an easy life. James and John wanted that path to be one of glory and power. Jesus quickly disabused them of that notion. His “way” is one of suffering, pain, and service. To walk the Christward road means to give of ourselves totally, to embrace Christ’s “cup” of suffering, to live as he did for the benefit of those around us, to seek the glory of God rather than of ourselves. This does not necessarily mean that we surrender all earthly goods and embrace lives of poverty (though for many it may mean that). Mary, Mark’s mother, never sold her home; rather, she used it as one of the first “house churches” in Jerusalem (Acts 12:12). Zacchaeus (Luke 19:1–10) and Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:4–12) did not surrender their wealth or position in society but instead used them for the glory of God. We are called to place self last and to make Jesus first (Phil. 2:3).
3.The healing of Bartimaeus is “the gospel in a microcosm.”10 As the final event of Jesus’s earthly ministry, this healing story provides a segue to the passion event. Jesus responds to the blindness of all humankind by healing this man, linked to Isaiah 9:2: “The people walking in darkness have seen a great light.” Jesus is illuminating all people with the light of God and is offering them the truths of his kingdom reality. At the same time, the meaning of the passion is held in bold relief by the emphasis on Jesus as the “Son of David,” the royal Messiah. As such, it prepares for the triumphal entry, when Jesus will ride into Jerusalem in triumph as the king of Israel, showing himself to the nation as the anointed king.
Illustrating the Text
A discipleship choice: faith or me?
Church History: Augustine, the bishop of Hippo, was brought up as a Christian, and at the age of sixteen he went to Carthage to complete his education. While there he studied philosophy and abandoned his Christian heritage. Augustine was later offered a position in Rome, where he founded his own school of rhetoric. But God had another plan for him. After a long inner struggle, he once again embraced Christian faith. In his autobiographical work, Confessions, Augustine writes about his struggle to choose to live for himself or to surrender fully to Christ. He felt the Lord lead him to read Romans 13:13–14, and in response to this passage Augustine wrote: “It was as though the light of confidence flooded into my heart and all the darkness of doubt was dispelled.... You converted me to yourself, so that I no longer ... placed any hope in this world but stood firmly upon the rule of faith.”11Augustine surrendered fully to the plan of God for his life, surrendering his will to follow the Lord. What about you? Will your life be about following Jesus as your Lord or about living for yourself?
A discipleship choice: faith or fame?
Popular Culture: According to a 2011 study by a team of psychologists at UCLA, the number one value promoted by television shows for preteens in 2007 was fame. This was a change from previous years (1967, 1977, and 1987), when the focus was on being part of a group.12This focus on fame should not surprise us, for this value is accentuated and modeled for us in our culture. Fame is like a drug that drives people to achieve. But what happens when fame is unsatisfying? In 1988 George Harrison, former member of the Beatles rock band, told Time magazine, “Of course, at first we all thought we wanted the fame.... After a bit we realized that fame wasn’t really what we were after at all, just the fruits of it. After the initial excitement and thrill had worn off, I, for one, became depressed. Is this all we have to look forward to in life?”13Faith, however, does not promote fame or any self-focused goal. Rather, it is focused on loving and following God, giving us purpose for eternity. Beware of the seductive power of fame, which, even if achieved for a moment, is often fleeting. Hold on to faith, which lasts forever.
The mode of discipleship: following Jesus on the way
Object Lesson: Following Jesus means to live our life in constant imitation of him. How do we do this? Ask a volunteer to stand directly in front of you and to hold his or her hands out in front. Now, hold your hands up to mirror the volunteer’s hands and explain that as you move your hands, he or she is to follow you. Begin slowly so that it is easy for the volunteer to follow, and then quicken the movement so that there is no way to perfectly follow your hand movement. Explain that simply trying to imitate Jesus is not enough. Rather, we have to live in Christ in such a way that we pray regularly, read his word continually, and submit our selfish desires to him on a daily basis. To illustrate this truth, have the volunteer hold his or her hands out once again. This time, lock your hands with the volunteer’s and begin to move your hands. Because the volunteer’s hands are in yours, he or she will be able to imitate your movement. Disciples join their lives to Jesus in order to imitate him.
Teaching the Text by Grant R. Osborne, Baker Publishing Group, 2016
Direct Matches
The initiatory ritual of Christianity. This rite is of great significance in connecting the individual both to Christ and to the greater community of believers. Baptism carries an equal measure of symbolism and tradition, evoking a connection between OT covenantal circumcision and ritual cleansing and NT regeneration and redemption.
The immediate precursor of Christian baptism was the baptism of John the Baptist (Mark 1:4 pars.), a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins, preparing the hearts of the people for the coming Messiah. But when Jesus himself was baptized by John to “fulfill all righteousness” (Matt. 3:15) and to allow Jesus to identify with sinful humanity, he became the firstfruits of the new covenant. John emphasized that his baptism with water was inferior to the baptism “with the Holy Spirit and fire” that Jesus would bring (Matt. 3:11). Jesus’ disciples continued John’s baptism during his earthly ministry (John 4:12).
Baptism was immediately important in the early church. Jesus commanded the disciples to “make disciples..., baptizing them” (Matt. 28:19). The disciples replaced Judas from among those “who have been with us the whole time ... from John’s baptism” (Acts 1:21–22). Peter’s first sermon proclaims, “Repent and be baptized” (2:38). The apostles baptized new believers in Christ immediately (8:12–13, 38; 9:18; 10:48; 16:15, 33; 18:8; 19:5; 22:16).
For the apostle Paul, baptism represents a participation in the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Paul writes, “Don’t you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death” (Rom. 6:3–4); “In him you were ... buried with him in baptism, in which you were also raised with him through your faith in the working of God, who raised him from the dead” (Col. 2:11–12).
In the book of Psalms, “cup” signifies a person’s divinely appointed lot in life (16:56; 23:5). The “cup of salvation” (Ps. 116:13) alludes to the wine poured out as part of the thank offering (Num. 28:7–8).
The most important theological use is the mainly prophetic (but also psalmic [e.g., Ps. 75:8]) image of the cup of God’s wrath that wicked nations will drink (e.g., Isa. 51:17–23; Jer. 25:15–17, 28). The book of Revelation takes up this image (14:10; 16:19; 17:4; 18:6). This OT usage also stands behind the “cup” that Jesus must drink, to which he refers in the prediction of his death (Mark 10:38–39) and in his prayer in the garden of Gethsemane (Mark 14:36; cf. John 18:11: “Shall I not drink the cup the Father has given me?”). On the cross, Jesus as the substitute for sinners bore God’s wrath.
The word “Gentiles” is often used to translate words meaning “nations” or “peoples.”
In general, within the OT, Gentiles are not God’s people. God chose Israel to be his people, not other nations (Deut. 7:68; 10:15; 26:18–19). Israelite ancestry determines membership in the covenant people. Some writings thus forbid Gentiles from becoming part of God’s people (Ezra 9–10; Neh. 13).
The OT more commonly envisions Gentiles experiencing covenant blessing through Israel if they functionally become Israelites by keeping the law, including the parts we understand as ceremonial-ritual law. The law is that special life-giving and regulating aspect of the covenant that God revealed to Israel, which defines Israel (Lev. 18:1–5; 20:22–26; Deut. 4:1–8, 32–40; 6:24–25; 8:1–6; 10:12–11:32; 30:11–20; Josh. 1:7–9; Neh. 9:29; Pss. 119; 147:19–20; Ezek. 20:9–13, 21).
Such law/Israel-centered conditions for Gentiles relate to a broader OT understanding: God will reach and restore the world through Israel, the locus of his saving activity. God will bless the nations in and through Abraham’s descendants, Israel (Gen. 12:1–3; 17:4–6; 22:18; 26:4; 28:14). This covenant specifically involves keeping the law (e.g., circumcision [Gen. 17:9–14]). Some passages depict this happening through the nations being subject to Israel (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:9, 17–19; Isa. 11:10–16; 14:2; 54:3). In other passages the nations will be blessed by Israel’s God as they come to Israel, bring back exiled Israel, serve Israel, present Israel with their own wealth, and/or fear Israel’s God (Isa. 45:23; 49:22–23; 51:4–5; 55:5; 60:3–16; 61:5–6; 66:12–13, 18–21; Mic. 7:12–17; Zech. 2:11; 8:22–23). Other passages further elucidate the law-defined nature of such Gentile participation in the God of Israel’s salvation (Exod. 12:48; Isa. 56:1–8; Jer. 12:14–17; Zech. 14:16–21). The portrait of the nations “flowing” up the mountain of God associates Gentile participation in God’s salvation explicitly with the law (Isa. 2:2–5; Mic. 4:1–5).
Situating Jesus and early Christianity within this matrix of Gentile sensitivities is illuminating. As the Jesus movement spread across the Mediterranean, proclaiming the ultimate salvation of the God of Israel in and through Jesus the Messiah, questions about how Gentiles experience this salvation of the Jewish God had paramount importance.
Some Christians, in line with traditional readings of the OT, thought that Gentiles must keep the law, becoming Jews to experience the God of Israel’s salvation in Jesus (Acts 11:1–3; 15:1, 5; Paul’s opponents in Galatia). Gentiles, after all, were separated from God and his salvation promises to Israel (Rom. 9:4–5; Eph. 2:11–13; 1Pet. 2:10). They stood under God’s condemnation, especially because they were controlled by their passions and sin, lacking self-mastery and the ability to live rightly (Rom. 1:18–32; Eph. 4:17–19; 1Thess. 4:5; 1Pet. 1:14, 18).
However, various NT authors, such as Paul, contend that Gentiles need not keep the law, functionally becoming Jews, in order to participate in God’s ultimate salvation in Jesus. Christ, the climax of Israel itself, has replaced the law’s centrality and ultimacy with himself and his death and resurrection (Rom. 10:4). Through being united to Christ by the Spirit, Gentiles are, apart from the law, grafted into true, redefined Israel and become Abraham’s descendants, inheriting God’s promised salvation for Israel (Rom. 3:21–4:25; 8:1–17; 9:30–10:17; 11:13–32; Gal. 2:11–4:7; Eph. 2:11–22; 3:4–6). In Christ, by the Spirit, Gentiles attain self-mastery over their passions and sin and thus live rightly before God, inheriting the kingdom of God in Christ (Rom. 6:1–8:30; 1Cor. 6:9–11; Gal. 5:16–26; 1Thess. 4:3–8). Various NT writings thus reconfigure the situation of Gentiles with respect to Israel’s God because of what God did in Christ.
Debates about Gentiles, the law, salvation, and what Christ means for these issues persisted after Paul. Early Christians lacked an unequivocal saying from Jesus on the matter, and not all accepted Paul and some other NT writings.
The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).
In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).
The name “James” is a form of the name “Jacob” (Heb. Ya’aqob; Gk. Iakōbos), which was very popular in the first century. In the NT there are five individuals named “James.”
(1)James the son of Zebedee and the older brother of John. He was martyred by Herod AgrippaI in AD 40 (Mark 1:19; 3:17; Acts 12:2).
(2)James the son of Alphaeus we know very little about other than that he is consistently listed among the disciples (Mark 3:18; Matt. 10:3; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13).
(3)James “the younger” (Mark 15:40), whose mother, named “Mary,” appears in Mark 16:1 just as the “mother of James.” In church tradition, he is sometimes identified with James the son of Alphaeus.
(4)James the father of Judas (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13) is mentioned only to distinguish this Judas from Judas Iscariot.
(5)James the brother of Jesus was an early leader of the Jerusalem church (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:1331; 21:18; 1Cor. 15:7; Gal. 1:19; 2:9, 12; Jude 1). A number of Jesus’ family members became prominent leaders in the early Christian movement in Palestine, James being the most prominent.
A common name in first-century Judaism. The Greek name Iōannēs comes from the Hebrew name “Yohanan.” (1)The Baptist or Baptizer, he was the son of the priest Zechariah and Elizabeth. (See John the Baptist.) (2)The son of Zebedee, he was an apostle originally belonging to the inner circle of the twelve main disciples of Jesus. (See John the Apostle.) (3) John Mark, a cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10) and the son of Mary (Acts 12:12). (See Mark, John.) (4)The elder. Both 2John and 3John claim authorship by “the elder” (2John 1; 3John 1). Traditionally, all three Johannine Letters, the Gospel of John, and sometimes the Revelation of John have been attributed to John the apostle. However, modern scholarship often attributes 2John and 3John, and sometimes 1John, to “the elder”—John the elder. (5)The seer, the author of the book of Revelation (see 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8). Some scholars ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, in line with the view of the church father Irenaeus. Other scholars ascribe the writing of Revelation to a certain John the elder. The book of Revelation does not further identify the author. However, the author is among the prophets, a seer, and his name is “John”—hence, John the seer.
In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]). These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1Tim. 3:113).
The ministry of Jesus. The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesus understood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that of serving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, he called his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the new community that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28; 23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NT writers describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39; Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministry of Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
The ministry of the church. The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues these ministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summary of the overarching ministries of the church, which include speaking the words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod. 19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individual members took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks of service. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27; Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it was another believer’s responsibility to confront that wayward person and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt. 18:15–20).
Although ministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were those with special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart for particular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apart Apollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7). The church called on special functionaries to carry out specific ministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individuals to serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry the relief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19, 23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, the elders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching and preaching and healing for the whole church.
All the ministries of the church, whether performed by believers in general or by some specially appointed functionary, were based on gifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26). God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works of service (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet. 4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’s relationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians are equal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paul identifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11). The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ calls certain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. The ones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the church but rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph. 4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or her because those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor. 4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results in leadership.
It becomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others for ministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turn minister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim. 2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is to build up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ (Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16; 1Thess. 2:19–20).
A payment made to redeem a slave, release a captive, or free a criminal from punishment.
In the OT, slaves could be set free by ransom (Lev. 19:20), and certain kinds of criminals are excluded from ransom (Num. 35:3132), implying that others could be ransomed to escape their punishment. Ransom is also used more broadly to include notions of atonement (Exod. 30:12) and as a near synonym for “redemption” (Jer. 31:11 NASB, NRSV, KJV). “Ransom” is frequently used metaphorically to describe God’s saving actions on behalf of the nation (Isa. 43:3; 50:2; Jer. 31:11; Hos. 13:14), saving them from their enemies, or of individuals (Job 5:20; Ps. 55:18), saving them from death. In these cases, the emphasis is on the rescue effected, not the price paid.
In the NT, “ransom” is used to describe the atoning work of Christ. Jesus describes his own purpose: “The Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45// Matt. 20:28). Paul uses the same language: “Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a ransom for all people” (1Tim. 2:5–6). The author of Hebrews describes the effect of this ransom: “He has died as a ransom to set them free from the sins committed under the first covenant” (Heb. 9:15). All three references indicate that the price paid for the ransom is Jesus’ life, given up to death on the cross. Each of the literal meanings of “ransom” has its metaphorical equivalent: Christ’s death frees us from our slavery to sin and death (Rom. 6:6), releases us from our captivity to the law (7:4–6), and pays the price of the punishment that our sins deserved (3:25–26). The ransom was not paid to the devil, and it is best understood as the satisfaction of God’s own justice (Rom. 6:23).
There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).
Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).
Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).
The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.
In the OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers to humanity in general or to a specific individual. In Ezekiel, for instance, God addresses the prophet himself as “son of man,” possibly indicating his human status compared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique status as God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.
One of the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7 because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in the Gospel tradition. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’s vision (7:114), while the second half contains its interpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13). This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are “like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and “like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesome that it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom (7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient world empires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man” has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthly Israel, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed with authority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people of the Most High” receive in verse27. In this way, the “one like a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthly saints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly being such as the archangel Gabriel (9:21) or Michael (10:13; 12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenly counterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battle on its behalf.
In the NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospels and, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus), is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. Unlike in Daniel, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with the definite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a known figure. In first-century Judaism many Jews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as savior and judge. The OT provides the most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in the Gospels.
The Son of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories: earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings. Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Son of Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in 2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel the Son of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance in Yahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in the Gospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesus also predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raised again. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur three times (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight of Jesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the little horn (v.21). If the “one like a son of man” represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonable that he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text of Daniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference to Dan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62 the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to his vindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus in Mark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicial responsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33). Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for the return of the Son of Man (12:39–40; 17:22–37; 21:34–36).
Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly temple functioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev. 1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud” (14:14–16).
The father of the disciples James and John, he was a Galilean fisherman by trade (Mark 1:1620; Matt. 4:18–22). Zebedee’s sons worked with him in the fishing business, and he seems to have possessed some wealth, as indicated by his ownership of a boat and the use of hired servants (Mark 1:20). His wife’s name appears to have been Salome (cf. Mark 15:40; 16:1; Matt. 27:56).
Direct Matches
In the book of Psalms,“cup” signifies a person’sdivinely appointed lot in life (16:5–6; 23:5). The “cupof salvation” (Ps. 116:13) alludes to the wine poured out aspart of the thank offering (Num. 28:7–8).
Themost important theological use is the mainly prophetic (but alsopsalmic [e.g., Ps. 75:8]) image of the cup of God’s wrath thatwicked nations will drink (e.g., Isa. 51:17–23; Jer. 25:15–17,28). The book of Revelation takes up this image (14:10; 16:19; 17:4;18:6). This OT usage also stands behind the “cup” thatJesus must drink, to which he refers in the prediction of his death(Mark 10:38–39) and in his prayer in the garden of Gethsemane(Mark 14:36; cf. John 18:11: “Shall I not drink the cup theFather has given me?”). On the cross, Jesus as the substitutefor sinners bore God’s wrath.
Acup of cold water (Matt. 10:42) symbolizes a small deed of kindnessdone for one of Jesus’ “little ones” that will notgo unrewarded. The Pharisees cleaned only “the outside of thecup,” meaning that they conformed only outwardly to God’swill (Matt. 23:25–26). The “cup of thanksgiving”(cf. 1 Cor. 10:16), the third cup of the series of shared cupsduring the Passover meal (Luke 22:17 mentions an earlier cup), wasreinterpreted by Jesus at the Last Supper (Matt. 26:27; Mark 14:23;Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 10:23–29). Paul teaches that sharing inmeals at pagan temples (“the cup of demons”) isincompatible with participation in the Lord’s Supper (“thecup of the Lord”) (1 Cor. 10:21).
John, along with his brother James, was a son of Zebedee anda fisherman, and a disciple of Jesus. He was first called to be adisciple when Jesus passed along the shore of Galilee (Matt. 4:21;Mark 1:19–20; Luke 5:10). The fishing boat belonging to John’sfamily contained hired men, indicating that he left behind aprofitable fishing trade (Mark 1:20). Jesus surnamed John and hisbrother James “Boanerges,” meaning “sons ofthunder” (Mark 3:17), likely a reflection of their boisteroustemperament.
John’spassionate temperament may be reflected in the Gospels in his attemptto confront potential opposition (Mark 9:38–41; Luke 9:49–50)and his desire to bring heavenly fire down upon those who rejectedJesus (Luke 9:54). James and John requested seats of honor in Jesus’kingdom (Mark 10:37–40). Matthew clarified this event by namingJames and John’s mother as the one voicing the request,something befitting the cultural setting (Matt. 20:20–22). Aspart of Jesus’ inner group of disciples, along with James andPeter, John was allowed to witness Jesus’ actions on certaincritical occasions: raising a child from the dead (Mark 5:37–43),his transfiguration (Matt. 17:1–2; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28–30),and his agony in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–38; Mark14:32–34; Luke 22:39–40).
Inits account of Jesus’ passion, the Gospel of John highlightsthe actions of an unnamed disciple “whom Jesus loved.”John is the likeliest candidate. This disciple leaned on Jesus at thefinal supper (John 13:23), was given care of Jesus’ mother(19:26), arrived first at the empty tomb (20:2–4), firstrecognized the resurrected Jesus (21:7), was prophesied to live along life (21:23), and was an eyewitness of events in the Gospel(21:24).
Johnwas among the disciples who stayed in Jerusalem in the upper roomprior to Pentecost (Acts 1:13–14). John next was seen afterPentecost with Peter in accounts of the healing of a crippled beggar(3:1–11) and the two of them being arrested for proclaiming thegospel (4:1–23).
Johnis said to have authored the Fourth Gospel (John 21:20–24). TheGospel of John was written with a purpose stated explicitly by itsauthor: “That you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, theSon of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name”(20:31). This “believing” encapsulates several keyconvictions that the author sought to convey. First, Jesus is onewith God as preexistent and operative in creation (1:1–4, 10,18). Second, Jesus is the messianic Savior to God’s chosenpeople (1:41; 11:27) and all humankind (4:42). In the JohannineGospel, salvation is conceived in God’s love (3:16), formalizedby the sacrifice of his Son (1:29; 3:16), and received by thoseholding orthodox belief in Jesus’ divine identity (8:24) andorigin (12:44; 17:21). Finally, believing includes the convictionthat Jesus is one with God, expressed through sonship (1:19–2:11).In the Johannine Gospel, sonship is conveyed literarily andbuttresses the certainty that Jesus is sufficient to provide eternallife. Messianic realities mingled with sonship distinguish Jesus asthe ultimate revelation of God, thus complementing, whilesubordinating, previous Jewish religious convictions. In addition tothe Gospel of John, tradition attributes the Johannine Letters and,in some cases, the Revelation of John to the apostle John.
Johnthe apostle is understood in his older days to have been a member ofa community with disciples of his own, commonly known as theJohannine Community. Within this community the teachings of Johnabout Jesus were preserved and written down. In addition, hiscorrespondence was preserved—1John, 2John, and3John.
In the NT the most common word used for “minister”is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,”diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]).These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe thewhole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describeeither a special ministry performed by an official functionary(1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). Inthe early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchiesbut on services performed (1Tim. 3:1–13).
Theministry of Jesus.The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesusunderstood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that ofserving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, hecalled his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the newcommunity that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28;23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NTwriters describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39;Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministryof Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
Theministry of the church.The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues theseministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summaryof the overarching ministries of the church, which include speakingthe words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod.19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individualmembers took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks ofservice. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27;Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it wasanother believer’s responsibility to confront that waywardperson and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt.18:15–20).
Althoughministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were thosewith special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart forparticular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apartApollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7).The church called on special functionaries to carry out specificministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individualsto serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry therelief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19,23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, theelders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching andpreaching and healing for the whole church.
Allthe ministries of the church, whether performed by believers ingeneral or by some specially appointed functionary, were based ongifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26).God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works ofservice (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet.4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’srelationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians areequal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paulidentifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions:apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ callscertain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. Theones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the churchbut rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph.4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or herbecause those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor.4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results inleadership.
Itbecomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others forministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turnminister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim.2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is tobuild up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ(Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16;1Thess. 2:19–20).
A payment made to redeem a slave, release a captive, or freea criminal from punishment.
Inthe OT, slaves could be set free by ransom (Lev. 19:20), and certainkinds of criminals are excluded from ransom (Num. 35:31–32),implying that others could be ransomed to escape their punishment.Ransom is also used more broadly to include notions of atonement(Exod. 30:12) and as a near synonym for “redemption”(Jer. 31:11 NASB, NRSV, KJV). “Ransom” is frequently usedmetaphorically to describe God’s saving actions on behalf ofthe nation (Isa. 43:3; 50:2; Jer. 31:11; Hos. 13:14), saving themfrom their enemies, or of individuals (Job 5:20; Ps. 55:18), savingthem from death. In these cases, the emphasis is on the rescueeffected, not the price paid.
Inthe NT, “ransom” is used to describe the atoning work ofChrist. Jesus describes his own purpose: “The Son of Man didnot come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransomfor many” (Mark 10:45// Matt. 20:28). Paul uses the samelanguage: “Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a ransom for allpeople” (1Tim. 2:5–6). The author of Hebrewsdescribes the effect of this ransom: “He has died as a ransomto set them free from the sins committed under the first covenant”(Heb. 9:15). All three references indicate that the price paid forthe ransom is Jesus’ life, given up to death on the cross. Eachof the literal meanings of “ransom” has its metaphoricalequivalent: Christ’s death frees us from our slavery to sin anddeath (Rom. 6:6), releases us from our captivity to the law (7:4–6),and pays the price of the punishment that our sins deserved(3:25–26). The ransom was not paid to the devil, and it is bestunderstood as the satisfaction of God’s own justice (Rom.6:23).
Slavery and servanthood were part of everyday life in theancient world. There were many different kinds of circ*mstancesthrough which a person might become a slave. Some were coerced intoservitude after being captured in war; others were born into slavery;others served as slaves as a sentence for a crime; still othersserved by personal choice as an apprentice. Slavery was not based onrace. Furthermore, there was an enormous range of social and economicclasses among slaves, from the brutal life of a galley slave to thatof a wealthy servant of a king who might likewise own property andslaves.
Insome cases, manumission, or the freeing of slaves, was possibleduring Roman times. This could be accomplished if the master died orif the master’s will allowed for their freedom, and in somecases slaves could even purchase their own freedom. In the firstcentury AD, there were many such manumitted slaves. Acts 6:9 speaksof a Synagogue of the Freedmen, which probably means that it was madeup of former slaves.
OldTestament
Thereare numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized asfollowing a servant-master model. These included service to themonarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in thetemple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also seeextensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:1–11; Lev.25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concernedwith the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelinesfor their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaveswho had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of sixyears. On the seventh year, known also as the Year of Jubilee, theywere to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent awayempty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s“threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slavesalso had certain rights that gave them special privileges andprotection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, wereallowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays(Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their masterpermanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also,severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death(Exod. 21:20–21).
Someslaves chose freely to stay with their owner. Deuteronomy 15:16–17speaks of a slave who might say to a master, “I do not want toleave you,” out of love for the master and his family. Thiscommitment was sealed by piercing the earlobe of the slave with anawl. This symbolized a lifelong commitment to the master.
NewTestament
Slaverywas very common in the first century AD, and there were manydifferent kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in anextended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they mightchoose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25).Although slavery was a significant part of society in the firstcentury AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery.Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obediencefor slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25;1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21).Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves(Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned bythe apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “thegospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim.1:10–11).
Jesusembodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled therole of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servantpredicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9;52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in theGospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve(Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5).Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the verynature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).
Thespecial relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured inthe servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’sletters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses notso much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegianceand honor owed to Christ Jesus.
Theimagery of slavery is also used metaphorically in the NT in both anegative and a positive manner. In Rom. 6 the apostle Paul discusseshow slavery and obedience to former and latter masters is anessential part of the changed Christian life. Prior to knowingChrist, we were “slaves to sin” and obeyed its power(Rom. 6:16–17); after following Christ, we were freed from thepower of sin and death and became “slaves to righteousness”(Rom. 6:18) and “slaves of God” (Rom. 6:22).
Slavery and servanthood were part of everyday life in theancient world. There were many different kinds of circ*mstancesthrough which a person might become a slave. Some were coerced intoservitude after being captured in war; others were born into slavery;others served as slaves as a sentence for a crime; still othersserved by personal choice as an apprentice. Slavery was not based onrace. Furthermore, there was an enormous range of social and economicclasses among slaves, from the brutal life of a galley slave to thatof a wealthy servant of a king who might likewise own property andslaves.
Insome cases, manumission, or the freeing of slaves, was possibleduring Roman times. This could be accomplished if the master died orif the master’s will allowed for their freedom, and in somecases slaves could even purchase their own freedom. In the firstcentury AD, there were many such manumitted slaves. Acts 6:9 speaksof a Synagogue of the Freedmen, which probably means that it was madeup of former slaves.
OldTestament
Thereare numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized asfollowing a servant-master model. These included service to themonarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in thetemple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also seeextensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:1–11; Lev.25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concernedwith the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelinesfor their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaveswho had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of sixyears. On the seventh year, known also as the Year of Jubilee, theywere to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent awayempty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s“threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slavesalso had certain rights that gave them special privileges andprotection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, wereallowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays(Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their masterpermanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also,severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death(Exod. 21:20–21).
Someslaves chose freely to stay with their owner. Deuteronomy 15:16–17speaks of a slave who might say to a master, “I do not want toleave you,” out of love for the master and his family. Thiscommitment was sealed by piercing the earlobe of the slave with anawl. This symbolized a lifelong commitment to the master.
NewTestament
Slaverywas very common in the first century AD, and there were manydifferent kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in anextended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they mightchoose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25).Although slavery was a significant part of society in the firstcentury AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery.Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obediencefor slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25;1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21).Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves(Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned bythe apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “thegospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim.1:10–11).
Jesusembodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled therole of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servantpredicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9;52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in theGospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve(Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5).Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the verynature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).
Thespecial relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured inthe servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’sletters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses notso much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegianceand honor owed to Christ Jesus.
Theimagery of slavery is also used metaphorically in the NT in both anegative and a positive manner. In Rom. 6 the apostle Paul discusseshow slavery and obedience to former and latter masters is anessential part of the changed Christian life. Prior to knowingChrist, we were “slaves to sin” and obeyed its power(Rom. 6:16–17); after following Christ, we were freed from thepower of sin and death and became “slaves to righteousness”(Rom. 6:18) and “slaves of God” (Rom. 6:22).
Secondary Matches
The following suggestions occured because
Mark 10:35-45
is mentioned in the definition.
OldTestament
Preconditionsto love. Accordingto the OT, three preconditions must exist for us to know what itmeans to love.
First,we have the capacity for relationships because we are made in thelikeness of a personal God. God created us to reciprocate love backto him, in a relationship of mutual love.
Second,the true meaning of love depends on a true understanding of God,whose love causes him to pursue human beings even though their heartshave turned away from him for other substitute “loves.”This second point assumes that human beings still love, but they doso in a way distorted by sin. Sin causes human beings to live theirlives as though God did not exist. However, God in his mercy haschosen to intervene through his redemptive acts in history andthrough revelatory speech in order to deliver people from theblindness and corruption of sin. His pursuit of his unfaithful sonsand daughters gives us a picture of what true love looks like.
Third,God’s pursuit of human beings in history was by means ofelection and the establishment of a covenant. God chose to makehimself known to a particular people, those who would descend fromAbraham. God called Abraham to leave his country and go to a newplace that he would inherit as a new homeland, where his descendantswould be blessed (Gen. 12:1–3; 15; 17). God’s promise toAbraham took the form of an everlasting covenant, by which heguaranteed that he would fulfill what he had promised. He would bethe God of Abraham’s descendants, and they would be his people.They would receive the land of Canaan as an inheritance (17:6–8).In response, Abraham’s descendants were to obey God’scovenant by circumcising their male children (17:9–14). Thiscovenant would depend not on human faithfulness but on God’sfaithfulness. God would redeem this people to be his own specialpeople.
Severalgenerations later, God addressed the people through Moses, tellingthem that he chose them for no other reason than that he loved them(Deut. 7:7–8). Through Moses, God freed the people from theirslavery in Egypt and gave them the law. The law told them how to liveholy lives in response to God. It also included the provisions foratonement through the sacrificial system. In short, loving Godinvolved obeying his statutes.
Lovein wisdom books.The OT wisdom books Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes give us furtherinsight into the meaning of love. Proverbs exhorts its readers,“Above all else, guard your heart, for everything you do flowsfrom it” (4:23). One’s affections are the gateway to theallegiances of one’s heart. Once one’s affections havebeen hijacked by sinful passions, allegiance to God is subjugated toanother “master.” To the degree that sin usurps thethrone of the heart, it will steer the course of one’s actions(i.e., one’s “path”).
Inthe book of Job, Satan is convinced that Job serves God only becauseGod blesses Job, so Satan challenges God to let him afflict Job.Satan insists that if God removes Job’s blessings, Job willcurse God to his face (1:10–12). When God agrees to remove thehedge of protection and allows Job to suffer, the depth of Job’slove for God is vindicated. Although perplexed that God would allowhim to endure such suffering, he endures without forsaking God. Jobloved the giver more than his gifts, so his love did not turn tohatred when the gifts of God were removed.
Inthe book of Ecclesiastes, Qoheleth (the Teacher) reflects honestly onthe many vain pursuits and unexplainable dissonances thatcharacterize life “under the sun.” Only faith-filled lovefor God can enable one to live each moment of life with joy insteadof striving to find meaning in “under the sun” pursuits.This love chooses to trust the inscrutable wisdom of God in the faceof life’s many enigmas, uncertainties, and sufferings. One cando this honestly because of the belief that God’s just ruleover the affairs of the universe will be vindicated at the future dayof judgment (Eccles. 12:14).
Marriagemetaphor.The Bible uses the metaphor of marriage to describe God’scovenant relationship with his people (Isa. 54:5–8). Thismetaphor captures the intimate character of the relationship that Goddesires to have with his people. Marriage is the most intimate humanrelationship in two ways. First, marriage is a relationship in whichknowledge is the most intimate. A spouse can see many of the flawsthat are hidden from others. Thus, each spouse must accept and lovethe other for who that person is, in spite of his or herimperfections. Second, the depth and passion of the expressions oflove are most intimate in marriage. Consequently, there is no greaterpain than that caused by unfaithfulness to this covenant.
Sadly,as the story of the OT unfolds, God’s “wife”betrays him. How so? His people worship idols in their hearts (Ezek.14:1–5). Because God is jealous for the exclusive love of hispeople, idolatry is spiritual unfaithfulness. God wants both theallegiance and the affection of their hearts to be reservedexclusively for him. The people continue the formalities of worship,but their hearts have turned away from God. The book of Hoseaillustrates the sense of betrayal that God feels when his people arespiritually unfaithful. God tells Hosea to marry a woman who will beunfaithful to him. Subsequently, she leaves Hosea for one lover afteranother. This story is intended to give God’s people a vividpicture of how painful their spiritual betrayal of him is. His heartis crushed by the rebellious and idolatrous condition of his people.Hosea’s wife ends up on the market as a prostitute, and Godtells him to buy her back and love her again.
NewTestament
Thestory of God’s love for his people is expanded by what theFather did centuries later when he sent Jesus to pay the ransom forthe sins of his people so that they might be healed of theirrebellion and receive eternal life (John 3:16; 17:24). The death andresurrection of Christ were necessary because sin had to be atonedfor. This love is a free gift that comes to the one who trusts inChrist for forgiveness of sin and a new heart. The new heart inclinesone to please God. The gift of the Spirit enables one to bear the“fruit” of love (Gal. 5:22–23). As Abraham’sengrafted children (Gal. 3:7), believers are called by God to live aspilgrims on their way to a heavenly promised land (Heb. 11:9–10;1Pet. 2:11).
Christmodeled genuine love by serving us (Mark 10:42–45). His loveshould motivate us and enable us to practice sacrificial servicetoward others (Matt. 22:39; 1John 3:16). It should also causeus to practice forbearance, long-suffering, and forgiveness towardthose who wrong us (Matt. 18:21–35). It should cause us torepay evil with good (Rom. 12:14). Our love for truth should motivateus to act in the best interests of others (1Cor. 13:4–8)in the hope that they may become reconciled to God (2Tim.2:24–26).
The English word “atonement” comes from anAnglo-Saxon word, “onement,” with the preposition “at”;thus “at-onement,” or “at unity.” In someways this word has more in common with the idea of reconciliationthan our modern concept of atonement, which, while having “oneness”as its result, emphasizes rather the idea of how that unity isachieved, by someone “atone-ing” for a wrong or wrongsdone. Atonement, in Christian theology, concerns how Christ achievedthis “onement” between God and sinful humanity.
Theneed for atonement comes from the separation that has come aboutbetween God and humanity because of sin. In both Testaments there isthe understanding that God has distanced himself from his creatureson account of their rebellion. Isaiah tells the people of Judah,“Your iniquities have separated you from your God”(59:2). And Paul talks about how we were “God’s enemies”(Rom. 5:10). So atonement is the means provided by God to effectreconciliation. The atonement is required on account of God’sholiness and justice.
OldTestament
Inthe OT, the sacrificial system was the means by which sins wereatoned for, ritual purity was restored, iniquities were forgiven, andan amicable relationship between God and the offerer of the sacrificewas reestablished. Moses tells the Israelites that God has given themthe blood of the sacrificial animals “to make atonement foryourselves on the altar; it is the blood that makes atonement forone’s life” (Lev. 17:11). In essence, this is the basicoperating principle for atonement in the OT—the offering of theblood of a slaughtered animal in place of the life of the offerer.However, there have been significant scholarly debates regardingwhether this accurately portrays the ancient Israelite understandingof atonement.
Themeaning of “to atone.”First, there is disagreement over the precise meaning of the Hebrewword kapar (“to atone”). Among the more popularsuggestions are these: to cover, to remove, to wipe out, to appease,to make amends, to redeem or ransom, to forgive, and to avert/divert.Of late, one very influential theory is that atonement has little ornothing to do with the individual offerer, but serves only to purifythe tabernacle or temple and the furniture within from the impuritiesthat attach to them on account of the community’s sin. Thistheory, though most probably correct in what it affirms,unnecessarily restricts the effects of atonement to the tabernacleand furniture. There are, to be sure, texts that specifically mentionatonement being made for the altar (e.g., Exod. 29:36–37; Lev.8:15). But the repeated affirmation for most of the texts inLeviticus and Numbers is that the atonement is made for the offerer(e.g., Lev. 1:4; 4:20, 26); atonement results in forgiveness of sinfor the one bringing the offering. As far as the precise meaning ofkapar is concerned, it may be that some of the suggested meaningsoverlap and that a particular concept is more prevalent in somepassages, and another one in others.
Therehas also been debate over the significance of the offerer laying ahand on the head of the sacrificial animal (e.g., Lev. 1:4; 3:2).This has traditionally been understood as an identification of theofferer with the sacrifice and a transference of the offerer’ssins to the sacrifice. Recently this has been disputed and theargument made instead that it only signifies that the animal doesindeed belong to the offerer, who therefore has the right to offerit. But again, this is unduly restrictive; it should rather be seenas complementary to what has traditionally been understood by thisgesture. Indeed, in the rite for the Day of Atonement, when thepriest lays his hands on the one goat, confesses Israel’s sinand wickedness, and in doing so is said to be putting them on thegoat’s head (Lev. 16:21), this would seem to affirm thecorrectness of the traditional understanding. The sacrifice is thusbest seen as substitutionary: it takes the place of the offerer; itdies in his stead.
Therelationship between God and the offerer. Second,granted that the word kapar has to do with the forgiveness of sins,the question arises as to the exact effect that it has on therelationship between God and the offerer. The question here iswhether the effect is expiation or propitiation. Does the offeringexpiate the sin—wipe it out, erase it, remove it? Or does itpropitiate the one to whom the sacrifice is offered? That is, does itappease and placate God, so that the threat of God’s wrath isremoved? In one respect, the distinction seems artificial; it seemslogical that expiation naturally results in propitiation. On theother hand, the modern-day tendency to deny that God could possiblybe a God of wrath makes the question relevant. In any case, there arecertainly, in both religious and nonreligious contexts, passageswhere something like “appease” or “pacify”appears to be a proper rendering of kapar (Gen. 32:20; Exod. 32:30;Num. 16:46–47; 25:1–13; 1 Sam. 3:14). The effect ofatonement is that sins are removed and forgiven, and God is appeased.
Inconjunction with this last point, it is also important to note thatthere are a number of places where it is said that God does thekapar, that God is the one who makes atonement. Deuteronomy 21:8calls upon God, literally, to “atone [NIV: “accept thisatonement”] for your people, Israel.” In Deut. 32:43 Godwill “make atonement for his land and people.” Psalm 65:3(ESV) states that God “atone[s] for our transgressions”(ESV). Hezekiah prays in 2 Chron. 30:18, “May the Lord,who is good, pardon [atone for] everyone.” In Ps. 78:38 (ESV),God is said to have “atoned” for Israel’s iniquity.Psalm 79:9 (ESV) asks God to “atone for our sins for yourname’s sake.” In Isa. 43:3 kapar is translated as“ransom,” and God says to Israel that he gave “Egyptfor your ransom.” In Ezek. 16:63 God declares that he will“make atonement” for all the sins that Israel hascommitted. It may be that in most of these passages “atone”is to be understood as a synonym of “forgive.” However,as many commentators have noted, in at least some of these passages,the thought is that God is either being called upon to take or istaking upon himself the role of high priest, atoning for the sins ofthe people. It is important to remember God’s declaration inLev. 17:11 that he has given to the Israelites the blood of thesacrificial animals to make atonement for their sins. Atonement, nomatter how it is conceived of or carried out, is a gift that Godgraciously grants to his covenant people.
Thatleads to a consideration of one particularly relevant passage, Isa.52:13–53:12. In this text a figure referred to as “my[the Lord’s] servant” (52:13) is described as one who“took up our pain and bore our suffering” (53:4). He was“pierced for our transgressions” and “crushed forour iniquities” (53:5). “The Lord has laid on him theiniquity of us all” (53:6). And then we are told, “Yet itwas the Lord’s will to crush him and cause him to suffer,”and that “the Lord makes his life an offering for sin [NASB:“guilt offering”]” (53:10). There are many issueswith regard to the proper interpretation of this “Servant Song”(as it is often called), one of them being whether the termtranslated “guilt offering” should really be thought ofalong the lines of the guilt offering described in the book ofLeviticus (5:14–6:7; 7:1–10). But if the traditionalChristian understanding of this passage is correct, we have here apicture of God himself assuming the role of priest and atoning forthe sins of his people by placing their iniquities and sins on hisservant, a figure regarded by Jesus and the apostles in the NT to beGod’s very own son, Christ Jesus.
NewTestament
Therelationship between the Testaments.When we come to the NT, four very important initial points should bemade.
First,God’s wrath against sin and sinners is just as much a NTconsideration as an OT one. God still considers those who are sinfuland unrighteous to be his “enemies” (Rom. 5:10; Col.1:21). Wrath and punishment await those who do not confess JesusChrist as Lord (John 3:36; Rom. 2:5; Eph. 2:3). Atonement is themeans of averting this wrath.
Second,salvation is promised to those who come to God by faith in ChristJesus, but there is still the problem of how God can, at the sametime, be “just” himself and yet also be the one who“justifies” sinners and declares them righteous (Rom.3:26). God will not simply declare sinners to be justified unless hisown justness is also upheld. Atonement is the way by which God isboth just and justifier.
Third,as we saw in the OT that, ultimately, God is the one who atones, soalso in the NT God is the one who provides the means for atonement.It is by his gracious initiative that atonement becomes possible. IfJesus’ death is the means by which atonement is achieved, it isGod himself who “presented Christ as a sacrifice of atonement”(Rom. 3:25). It was God himself who “so loved the world that hegave his one and only Son” (John 3:16). God himself “senthis Son as an atoning sacrifice for our sins” (1 John4:10). God “did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for usall” (Rom. 8:32). Additionally, Christ himself was not anunwilling victim; he was actively involved in the accomplishing ofatonement by his death (Luke 9:31; John 10:15–18; Heb. 9:14).
Fourth,the atoning sacrifice of the Son was necessary because, ultimately,the OT sacrifices could not really have provided the necessaryatonement: “it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goatsto take away sins” (Heb. 10:4).
Portrayalsof Christ’s work of atonement.It has become common of late to refer to the different “images”or “metaphors” of atonement that appear in the NT. Thisis understandable on one level, but on another level there issomething misleading about it. So, for example, when the NT authorsspeak of Christ as a sacrifice for sin, it is not at all clear thatthey intend for the reader to take this as imagery. Rather, Christreally is a sacrifice, offered by God the Father, to take away sins,and to bear in his own body the penalty that should have been placedon the sinner. Christ’s sacrifice has an organic connection tothe OT sacrificial system, as the “full, final sacrifice.”The author of Hebrews would not have considered this to be imagery.In fact, a better case could be made that, from his perspective,Christ was the real sacrifice, and all the instances of sacrifice inthe OT were the imagery (Heb. 10:1). So as we look at the differentportrayals of Christ in his work of atonement in the NT, some ofthese may best be categorized as imagery or metaphor, while othersperhaps are better described as a “facet” of, or a“window” on, the atonement. It should also be noted thatthe individual portrayals do not exclude the others, and in somecases they overlap.
• Ransom.Some passages in the NT speak of Christ’s death as a ransompaid to set us free (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; 1 Tim. 2:6; Heb.9:15). The same Greek word translated “ransom” in thesepassages is rendered as “redeem” or “redemption”in other passages (Eph. 1:7; Col. 1:14). Other forms of the same wordare also translated “redeem” or “redemption”in Gal. 3:13–14; 4:5; Titus 2:14; Heb. 9:12; 1 Pet.1:18–19; Rev. 14:3. A near synonym of these words is used inRev. 5:9; 14:4, referring to how Christ “purchased”people by his blood. In most of these cases the picture is that ofslaves who have been ransomed, redeemed, or purchased from the slavemarket. Sometimes this is referred to as an “economic”view of atonement, though this label seems a bit crass, for thepurchase is not of a commodity but of human lives at the expense ofChrist’s own life and blood. To ask the question as to whom theransom was paid is probably taking the picture too far. But those whoare ransomed are redeemed from a life of slavery to sin and to thelaw.
• Cursebearer. In Gal. 3:13–14, noted above, there is also the pictureof Christ as one who bore the curse of the law in our place. Thelanguage is especially striking because rather than saying thatChrist bore the curse, Paul says that Christ became “a curse.”This is an especially forceful way of saying that Christ fully tookinto his own person the curse that was meant for us.
• Penaltybearer. Closely related to “curse bearer,” this portrayaldepicts Christ as one who has borne the legal consequences of oursins, consequences that we should have suffered; rather, becauseChrist has borne the penalty, we are now declared to be righteous andno longer subject to condemnation. This idea stands behind much ofthe argumentation that Paul uses in Romans and Galatians, and it alsointersects with the other portrayals. Passages representative of thispicture are Rom. 3:24–26; 4:25; 5:8–21; 8:32–34;Gal. 3:13–14; Eph. 2:15. It is also what should be understoodby Peter’s description of Christ’s death as “thejust for the unjust” in 1 Pet. 3:18 (NASB, NET), as wellas in 2 Cor. 5:21, where Paul states that Christ has become “sinfor us” so that we might become the “righteousness ofGod.”
• Propitiation.There are four passages where the NIV uses “atonement” or“atoning” in the translation to reflect either the Greekverb hilaskomai or related nouns hilastērion or hilasmos. Thisis the word group that the LXX regularly uses to translate the Hebrewverb kapar and related nouns. There has been much debate about theprecise meaning of the word in these four NT texts, in particular, asto whether it means to “expiate” (“remove guilt”)or to “propitiate” (“appease” or “avertwrath”). The better arguments have been advanced in favor of“propitiate”; at the very least, propitiation is impliedin expiation. The wrath that we should have suffered on account ofour sins has been suffered by Jesus Christ instead. Although thespecific word is not used, this is the understanding as well in thosepassages where it is said either that Christ died “for oursins” (1 Cor. 15:3), “gave himself for our sins”(Gal. 1:4), “bore our sins” (1 Pet. 2:24), or thathis blood was poured out “for the forgiveness of sins”(Matt. 26:28; cf. Eph. 1:7).
• Passover.In 1 Cor. 5:7 Paul states that “Christ, our Passover lamb,has been sacrificed.” Although the Passover has nottraditionally been thought of as a sacrifice for sin (though manyscholars would argue that it was), at the very least we shouldrecognize a substitutionary concept at play in Paul’s use ofthe Passover idea. A lamb died so that the firstborn would not. TheGospel of John seems to have the same understanding. Early in theGospel, Jesus is proclaimed as the “Lamb of God, who takes awaythe sin of the world” (John 1:29). And then in his account ofJesus’ passion, John narrates that his crucifixion wasprecisely at the same time as the slaying of the Passover lambs (John19:14).
• Sacrifice.This theme has already been touched on in the other portraits above,but it is important to recognize the significance of this concept inthe NT and especially in the book of Hebrews. There, Christ isportrayed as both sacrifice and the high priest who offers thesacrifice (2:17; 7:27; 9:11–28; 10:10–21; 12:24). Hecame, not as some have argued, to show the uselessness of thesacrificial system, but rather to be the “full, finalsacrifice” within that system, “that he might makeatonement for the sins of the people” (2:17).
Ofcourse, it is not just the death of Christ that secures ourredemption. His entire earthly life, as well as his resurrection andheavenly intercessory work, must also be recognized. But with regardto the work of atonement per se, Christ’s earthly life,his sinless “active obedience,” is what qualifies him tobe the perfect sacrifice. His resurrection is the demonstration ofGod’s acceptance of Christ’s sacrifice (he “wasraised to life for our justification” [Rom. 4:25]). But it wasparticularly his death that provided atonement for our sins.
A person enters bankruptcy upon legally declaring inabilityto repay debts. God commanded that obligations be repaid, but he alsoestablished a type of bankruptcy procedure for Israel’s poorestdebtors. They could render six years of life in servitude, butcreditors had to release their servants every seventh year (Exod.21:2). Additionally, the liberation at Jubilee (Lev. 25:10) gave thepoor some protection against oppressive terms of service (cf. Neh.5:3–5).
Akey biblical theme concerns the kinsman-redeemer, who could buy backclose relatives from slavery and restore their land to the family(Lev. 25:25, 47–48). The book of Ruth tells how Boaz redeemedRuth from poverty and alienation back to Naomi’s ancestralland. This theme continues with Jesus Christ, who came as a “ransomfor many” (Mark 10:45). With his blood he purchased the freedomof a spiritually bankrupt people, sold into bondage to sin (1 Pet.1:18–19).
Mark 10:46–52 tells of this blind beggar who properlyidentifies Jesus as the “Son of David” (cf. Matt.20:29–34; Luke 18:35–43). Because blindness can be asymbol of unbelief (Isa. 43:8), restoring sight was a sign of thecoming Messiah (Isa. 29:18; Matt. 11:2–6). The Bartimaeus storyis part of a larger unit (Mark 8:22–10:52), framed by Jesus’healing of another blind person (8:22–26). Seeing andbelieving, Bartimaeus is cast as an ideal disciple, “following”Jesus (10:52). Mark’s use of the name implies a well-knowndisciple (cf. Jairus in 5:22).
Terminology
“Deacon”is an English translation of the Greek word diakonos. Generically,this term refers to one who serves, and the word is used with thissense repeatedly throughout the NT (e.g., Matt. 20:26; 23:11; Mark9:35; 10:43). Matthew 22:13 speaks specifically of those who serve bydoing the bidding of a king. John 2:9 refers to the servants who drawthe water at the wedding in Cana. Various other passages use diakonosin a religious context with reference to ministers or those who serveGod or Christ in some way (Rom. 13:4; 2Cor. 6:4; Eph. 6:21;Col. 1:7; 1Tim. 4:6). This broad usage of the term to indicategeneral service, including table service, is also quite common in thesecular Greek literature of the first century.
Asthe early church grew and developed, the word diakonos came todesignate the specific church office of deacon. Although often cited,Acts 6 is inconclusive regarding the office of deacon. The noundiakonos does not appear in this text, but the related verb formdiakoneō (“to wait on” [Acts 6:2]) is used inreference to the ministry of distributing food. Some interpretersfind in this the precursor or establishment of the diaconate, butothers argue that the use of diakoneō to speak of table serviceneed not imply that the role of deacon had developed at this earlystage of the church. Only two passages in the NT, Phil. 1:1 and1Tim. 3:8–12, clearly use diakonos in the sense of anestablished church office, and here the NIV rightly translates it as“deacon.”
TheOffice of Deacon
Paul’saddress to the believers in Philippi is unique within the Paulinecorpus in its singling out of two church offices. While directing hiswords to the saints at Philippi, Paul specifically makes mention ofthe “overseers” (Gk. episkopos) and deacons in theirmidst (Phil. 1:1). This greeting provides evidence of the existenceof such ecclesiastical structure from the early AD 60s at the latest.
Themost detailed information in the NT related to the office of deaconoccurs in 1Tim. 3:8–12. Immediately following adiscussion of “overseers” (Gk. episkopos) in 1Tim.3:1–7, this text shifts its focus to the office of deacon andprovides a description of the requirements for the one occupying therole. The one fit to serve as a deacon should have a character worthyof respect, and the passage calls for the demonstration of thischaracter in the areas of drink, money (v.8), and family(v.12). A deacon should display a commitment to Christian truth(v.9), and a candidate should be tested before officially beingallowed to serve in this office (v.10).
Deaconessesin the Early Church
Significantdiscussion surrounds the issue of whether the NT limits the role ofdeacon to men or whether it provides evidence of women serving asdeacons, frequently designated with the feminized term “deaconess.”At issue is the translation of gynaikes in 1Tim. 3:11. The NIVrenders it as “women”; also within its range of meaningare the translations “wives” (ESV) and “womendeacons.” The context of the passage must dictate whether thequalifications listed in 1Tim. 3:11 apply to the wives of thosem*n who wish to be deacons or whether they are the standard for thosewomen who themselves desire to serve in the office of deacon. On theone hand, the subsequent clear address of a male deacon as needing tobe “faithful to his wife” (1Tim. 3:12) makes areference to female deacons in 1Tim. 3:11 an illogicalinterruption. However, those who see in 1Tim. 3:11 a referenceto female deacons cite the use of diakonos to describe Phoebe in Rom.16:1 as evidence that she served as a deaconess of the church inCenchrea. Alternatively, Rom. 16:1 may be speaking only of Phoebe’sgreat service to the church in that locale without implying that sheoccupied an official church office.
Whetheror not 1Tim. 3:11 and Rom. 16:1 have in mind the role ofdeaconess, it is clear that an order of deaconesses existed in thechurch after the first century. The most significant early evidenceincludes the Didaskalia Apostolorum (Syria, early third century AD),which describes the female deacon in the Eastern church as one whoministered by assisting women with their baptism, providedinstruction to the recently baptized women, visited women who wereill, and provided service for women in need. The fourth-centurySyrian Apostolic Constitutions affirms their function in similaractivities and identifies additional duties, including maintainingthe separation of the sexes during worship. It also describes theirordination by means of the laying on of hands and prayer.
Mark’s Gospel is a fast-paced, action-packed narrativethat portrays Jesus as the mighty Messiah and Son of God, who suffersand dies as the servant of the Lord—a ransom price for sins.Mark’s purpose is to provide an authoritative account of the“good news” about Jesus Christ and to encourage believersto follow Jesus’ example by remaining faithful to their callingthrough persecution and even martyrdom. A theme verse is Mark 10:45:“For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but toserve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.”
NarrativeStructure (Plot) and Main Themes
Mark’snarrative may be divided into two main parts. The first half of thestory demonstrates that Jesus is the mighty Messiah and Son of God(1:1–8:26); the second half reveals that the Messiah’srole is to suffer and die as a sacrifice for sins (8:27–16:8).
Messiahand Son of God.Unlike Matthew and Luke, Mark does not begin with stories of Jesus’birth but instead moves directly to his public ministry. As in theother Gospels, John the Baptist is the “messenger” whoprepares the way for the Messiah (cf. Isa. 40:3; Mal. 3:1). Johnpreaches a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins andannounces the “more powerful” one, the Messiah, who willcome after him (1:7). When Jesus is baptized by John, the Spiritdescends on him, empowering him for ministry. After his temptation(or testing) by Satan in the desert, Jesus returns to Galilee andlaunches his ministry, proclaiming the “good news”(gospel) that “the time has come.... Thekingdom of God has come near” (1:15).
Duringhis Galilean ministry, Jesus demonstrates extraordinary authority inteaching, healing, and exorcism. He calls fishermen from theiroccupation, and they drop everything and follow him (1:16–20).He claims authority to forgive sins (2:10) and authority over theSabbath command (2:28). He reveals power over natural forces, calmingthe sea (4:35–41), walking on water (6:45–52), andfeeding huge crowds with a few loaves and fishes (6:30–44;8:1–13). The people stand “amazed” and “astonished”(a major theme in Mark) at Jesus’ teaching and miracles, andhis popularity soars.
Jesus’authority and acclaim provoke opposition from the religious leadersof Israel, who are jealous of his influence. The scribes andPharisees accuse him of claiming the prerogative of God (2:7),associating with undesirable sinners (2:16), breaking the Sabbath(2:24), and casting out demons by Satan’s powers (3:22). Theyconspire to kill him (3:6).
Asense of mystery and awe surrounds Jesus’ identity. When hecalms the sea, the disciples wonder, “Who is this?”(4:41), and King Herod wonders if this might be John the Baptistrisen from the dead (6:16). Adding to this sense of mystery is whathas come to be called the “messianic secret.” Jesussilences demons who identify him as the Messiah and orders those heheals not to tell anyone what has happened. This secrecy is not, assome have claimed, a literary device invented by Mark to explainJesus’ unmessianic life; rather, it is Jesus’ attempt tocalm inappropriate messianic expectations and to define his messianicmission on his own terms.
Messiah’srole to suffer and die. Thecritical turning point in the narrative comes in 8:27–33, whenPeter, as representative of the disciples, declares that Jesus is theMessiah. The authority that Jesus has demonstrated up to this pointconfirms that he is God’s agent of salvation. Yet Jesusstartles the disciples by announcing that his messianic task is to goto Jerusalem to suffer and die. Peter rebukes him, but Jesusresponds, “Get behind me, Satan! ... You do nothave in mind the concerns of God, but merely human concerns”(8:33). Jesus will accomplish salvation not by crushing the Romanoccupiers, but by offering his life as a sacrifice for sins.
Inthe second half of the Gospel, Jesus journeys to Jerusalem, threetimes predicting that he will be arrested and killed (8:31–32;9:31; 10:33–34). The disciples repeatedly demonstrate pride,ignorance, and spiritual dullness (8:33; 9:32–34; 10:35–41),and Jesus teaches them that whoever wants to be first must becomelast (9:35); that to lead, one must serve (10:45); and that to beJesus’ disciple requires taking up one’s cross andfollowing him (8:34).
Whenhe comes to Jerusalem, Jesus symbolically judges the nation byclearing the temple of merchants (11:15–17) and by cursing afig tree (representing Israel), which subsequently withers (11:12–14,20–21). He engages in controversies with the religious leaders(chaps. 11–12) and teaches the disciples that Jerusalem and thetemple will be destroyed (chap. 13). Judas Iscariot, one of Jesus’own disciples, betrays him. Jesus is arrested and brought to trialbefore the Jewish Sanhedrin, which finds him guilty of blasphemy.That council turns Jesus over to the Roman governor Pilate, whoaccedes to his crucifixion (chaps. 14–15).
Thecrucifixion scene in Mark is a dark and lonely one. Jesus is desertedby his followers, unjustly condemned, beaten by the soldiers, andmocked by all. Apparently deserted even by God, Jesus cries out fromthe cross, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?”(15:34). Yet the reader knows by this point in the story that Jesus’death is not the tragedy that it seems. This is God’s means ofaccomplishing salvation. Upon Jesus’ death, the curtain of thetemple is torn, opening a new way into God’s presence. TheRoman centurion at the cross cries out, “Surely this man wasthe Son of God!” (15:39). The death of the Messiah is not adefeat; it is an atoning sacrifice for sins. Three days later Jesusrises from the dead, just as he has predicted. When Jesus’women followers come to the tomb, the angel announces, “He hasrisen! He is not here” (16:6). Jesus the Messiah has turnedtragedy into victory and has defeated sin, Satan, and death.
LiteraryFeatures
Markwrites with a rough Semitic style characterized by colorful detailand dramatic effect. He emphasizes Jesus’ actions rather thanextended teaching. For its length, Mark’s Gospel records moremiracles and less teaching than the other Gospels. The author’sfondness for the term “immediately” (euthys) and use ofthe Greek historical present tense give the narrative a fast-paced,vivid, and realistic style.
Oneof Mark’s favorite literary techniques is intercalation, asandwiching method whereby one episode is interrupted by another,with the two mutually interpreting each other. One example of this isthe clearing of the temple, which is sandwiched between the cursingand withering of the fig tree (11:12–25). Both episodessymbolically represent Israel’s spiritual failure and comingjudgment. Other intercalations appear in 3:20–35; 5:21–43;6:7–30; 14:53–72.
Markis also fond of groups of three, or triads. Three boat scenesillustrate the disciples’ lack of faith and comprehension(4:35–41; 6:45–52; 8:14–21). In three cycles ofevents, Jesus predicts his death and then teaches his disciples aboutservant leadership (8:31–38; 9:31–37; 10:32–45). Inthe Olivet Discourse, Jesus three times tells his disciples to bealert (13:33, 35, 37), and then three times he finds them sleeping inGethsemane (14:37, 40, 41). Peter denies Jesus three times (14:68,70, 71), and three three-hour intervals are mentioned during thecrucifixion (15:25, 33, 34). These and other literary devices providecolor to Mark’s narrative and carry the story forward.
Authorship
Earlychurch tradition identifies the author of this Gospel as John Mark,son of Mary (Acts 12:12), cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10), missionarycompanion of Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:5), and later companion ofPeter (1Pet. 5:13). Church tradition claims that Mark becamePeter’s interpreter while working with him in Rome and put intowriting Peter’s version of the Gospel.
Mostscholars consider Mark to have been the first Gospel written andthink that Matthew and Luke both used Mark as one of their sources.
Audience,Life Setting, and Date
Thespecific audience of Mark’s Gospel is uncertain, although theauthor’s tendency to explain Jewish customs and terms suggestsa primarily non-Jewish (Gentile) readership. Mark also sometimesprovides Latin equivalents for Greek terms. This would agree with thechurch tradition that the Gospel was composed by John Mark in Romeand was intended for the Roman church.
ARoman setting and destination also fit well with the theme offaithfulness through suffering that runs through Mark’s story.Many scholars place the origin of Mark’s Gospel in Rome in themid-60s AD, in the context of the emperor Nero’s persecution ofChristians. Mark writes to encourage his readers to endure sufferingfor the gospel, to take up their crosses and follow Jesus, for “eventhe Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to givehis life as a ransom for many” (10:45).
Outline
I.The Preparation of the Son of God (1:1–13)
II.The Authoritative Ministry of the Son of God in and around Galilee(1:14–8:26)
A.The kingdom authority of the Son of God (1:14–3:12)
B.The disciple family of the Son of God and those outside (3:13–6:6)
C.The mission of the Son of God (6:7–8:26)
III.The Suffering of the Son of God as Servant of the Lord (8:27–16:8)
A.The confession of Peter and the servant Messiah (8:27–10:52)
B.The Son of God confronts Jerusalem (11:1–13:37)
C.Climax: The death of the Son of God (14:1–15:47)
D.Resolution: The resurrection of the Son of God (16:1–8)
E.Appendix (16:9–20)
The desire to harmonize the differences between the canonicalGospels can be traced back to the second century, when Tatian (asecond-century apologist) combined the four Gospels into one documentknown as the Diatessaron (Greek for “out of four”). Thiscombined Gospel was used in the Syrian churches in the third andfourth centuries until it was replaced by the four canonical Gospelsin the fifth century.
MaterialCommon to More than One Gospel
Allfour Gospels portray Jesus as leading a group of disciples,preaching, healing, performing miracles, being crucified, and beingraised from the dead. Matthew was written for a Jewish or JewishChristian audience, reminding them that Jesus fulfills the HebrewScriptures. Mark was written for a Gentile audience, focusing more onnarrative than on teaching and portraying Jesus as a man ofmiraculous, powerful action. Luke shows Jesus as one who isespecially concerned for the poor and those on the fringes ofsociety. John explains that Jesus, the eternal Word of God, is not asecond god, but rather the one true God, sent by the Father to renewIsrael.
Peoplewho are familiar with the content of the Gospel stories often confusethe information from different accounts. For example, there isactually no single story in the Bible about a “rich youngruler”: only Matthew describes the man as young (Matt. 19:20),and only Luke mentions that the man was a ruler (Luke 18:18).
Somematerial is found in all four Gospels, including information aboutJohn the Baptist, the miracle of the feeding of the five thousand,and the story of the crucifixion and the resurrection (although theindividual accounts of the resurrection differ). Some materialappears in three Gospels, especially in Matthew, Mark, and Luke.These three Gospels have therefore been labeled the “SynopticGospels” (syn= together, optic= view). Storiesfound in all three Synoptic Gospels include the transfiguration(Matt. 17:1–13; Mark 9:2–13; Luke 9:28–36); thehealing of Jairus’s daughter and of a woman with a flow ofblood (Matt. 9:18–26; Mark 5:21–43; Luke 8:41–56);and the rich young ruler (Matt. 19:16–30; Mark 10:17–31;Luke 18:18–30). The details do not agree in every respect ineach account, but clearly they represent the same story and exhibitlinguistic dependence on the same source(s).
Asignificant amount of material appears in two of the four canonicalGospels. Matthew and Mark have the story of a Syrophoenician woman(Matt. 15:21–28; Mark 7:24–30), and both Mark and Luketell the story of a widow’s offering to the temple treasury(Mark 12:41–44; Luke 21:1–4). The most significant bodyof teachings and sayings found in two Gospels is the material sharedby Matthew and Luke. Each of the Gospels contains material that doesnot appear in any other Gospel. Mark has the smallest amount of suchmaterial, John the largest.
TheGospel of John and the Synoptic Gospels
Basedon a study of the material common to more than one Gospel, and thematerial unique to one Gospel, John’s Gospel usually is seen asdistinct from the other three. The most likely explanation for thisis that John was written later, with knowledge of the other Gospels,and therefore the author saw no need to repeat most of this material(except what was central to his purposes). Some of the distinctivefeatures of John’s Gospel are the use of terminology such as“love,” “light,” “life,” “truth,”“abide,” “knowledge,” “world,”and the “I am” statements. Furthermore, certain Synopticterms are either rare or absent—for example, “kingdom,”“demons,” “power,” “pity,”“gospel,” “preach,” “repent,”“parable,” “tax collector.” More so than theSynoptics, John is written from the vantage point of the resurrectionand with the aid of hindsight as well as the Spirit. This is why theauthor of John’s Gospel does not refrain from adding commentaryto Jesus’ words (e.g., 2:21–22; 7:39; 11:51–52;12:16).
TheSynoptic Gospels are more interrelated. In passages that appear inthese three Gospels, there is often very close verbal agreementbetween them (e.g., the healing of the leper [Matt. 8:2; Mark1:40–44; Luke 5:12–14]; the question of Jesus’authority [Matt. 21:23–27; Mark 11:27–33; Luke 20:1–8]),implying a common source. In many sections that are found in allthree Synoptic Gospels, two agree extensively and the third diverges(e.g., Matt. 20:24–28 and Mark 10:41–45 against Luke22:24–27). When two Gospels agree and one disagrees, Matthewand Mark often agree against Luke, and Luke and Mark often agreeagainst Matthew; but Matthew and Luke do not often agree against Markand never do so in regard to the order of material. At other points,the Gospel accounts diverge quite significantly when referring to thesame events. The infancy narratives in Matthew are quite differentfrom those in Luke. The two accounts of the parable of the weddingbanquet (Matt. 22:2–14; Luke 14:16–24) differ sosignificantly that it is difficult to decide whether they are twoversions of the same parable or two different stories. Reports on theresurrection diverge across all four Gospels.
Itis possible that these similarities and differences can be tracedback to the oral presentation of the gospel. Apostolic preachingwould have formed itself into set ways of retelling the events ofJesus’ ministry through repetition. These accounts may havebeen told originally in Aramaic before being translated into Greek tofacilitate the Gentile mission. The authors of Matthew, Mark, andLuke could have been drawing from this common tradition in writingtheir Gospels. There is probably a degree of truth to this theory,but it cannot explain all the data. The theory does not account forsimilarities and differences in the order of events, nor does itexplain why Matthew and Luke always return to Mark’s orderafter they deviate from it. A common oral tradition does notadequately explain similar editorial comments (e.g., cf. Matt. 24:15with Mark 13:14), which suggest a common written source.
Somehave argued that the apostles or others wrote records of the words ofJesus (memorabilia), which were collected and written down topically,from which the Synoptic Gospels were composed. As the church grewnumerically and geographically, various collections of thesememorabilia were made. Again, this is not beyond the realm ofpossibility; however, working against this theory is the completeabsence of any reference to such records. Furthermore, as with theoral theory, it does not explain agreement in the order of material.It does, however, highlight the probability that the evangelists wereusing written sources.
MarkanPriority and Q
Onthe assumption that the writers of the Synoptic Gospels employed awritten source(s), several scholars have tried to reconstruct thisoriginal written Gospel from the material in the Synoptic Gospels.This document, which scholars call the Urevangelium (German for“original Gospel”), ended up bearing very closesimilarities with the Gospel of Mark. This is not surprising, sincenearly all of Mark is repeated in Matthew and Luke. This led to thebelief that Mark was the most primitive Synoptic Gospel, and that itwas a common source for Matthew and Luke.
Thisbelief in Markan priority, which has gained increasing popularitysince the nineteenth century, has helped explain the similaritiesamong the Synoptic Gospels. Traditionally, Matthew was thought to bethe first Gospel to be written, hence the order of the Gospels in ourNT. This belief in Matthean priority was upheld by several earlychurch writers such as Augustine, who saw Mark as an abridgement ofMatthew (Cons. 1.2). Augustine may have been more influenced by thetraditional ordering of the Gospels than by an analysis of theGospels themselves. Mark’s Gospel does not read like anabridgement; it is the shortest Gospel, but individual sections of ittypically are longer and more detailed than in Matthew.
Thereare many reasons why the priority of Mark is probable. It is theshortest Gospel, containing 661 verses, whereas Matthew contains1,068 and Luke contains 1,149. When their content is compared,97.2percent of Mark is paralleled in Matthew, and 88.4percentof Mark is paralleled in Luke. It is easier to understand Matthew andLuke as using Mark and choosing to add additional material to it thanto think of Mark as using Matthew, Luke, or both and deciding to omitmaterial such as the birth narratives and the Sermon on the Mount.Mark has simpler Greek, which includes an extensive use of thepresent tense, redundancies (e.g., Mark 1:32: “that eveningafter sunset”; cf. Matt. 8:16: “when evening came”;Luke 4:40: “at sunset”), and various colloquialisms(e.g., the word for “mat” in Mark 2:4). Mark alone amongthe Gospels uses Aramaic terms such as abba (14:36), talitha koum(5:41), and ephphatha (7:34), although Matthew also mentions Eloi,Eloi, lama sabachthani (Matt. 27:46; Mark 15:34). It is easier to seehow Luke and Matthew would have “improved” Mark than thereverse.
Ifwe accept the priority of Mark, and Luke and Matthew’sdependence upon it, there are still the sections of Matthew and Lukethat bear strong similarities with each other. From an analysis ofthe text of Matthew and Luke, it appears that these two evangelistsdid not know each other’s works. If one knew of the other’swork, why the divergence in some material such as the birthnarratives? Alongside this, however, there are close similarities inother material: Matthew has 4,290 words that have parallels in Lukebut not in Mark, and Luke has 3,559 words that have parallels inMatthew but not in Mark. The solution appears to be that Matthew andLuke were dealing with some material that they held in common, andthat each of them also had other material that he drew onindependently. The material held in common is commonly called “Q”(from the German word Quelle, meaning “source”); thematerial unique to Matthew is called “M” and that whichis unique to Luke, “L.” Whether Q was a document isunknown, although it is more likely to be a collection of sources, asis also the case with MandL.
Manyscholars argue that Q was a written rather than an oral source, basedon the exact word parallels in the Greek text (e.g., Matt. 6:24 andLuke 16:13, where 27 of the 28 words are exactly the same). Thepresence of doublets (double accounts of the same incident) inMatthew and Luke may show dependence by the respective evangelists onboth a Markan and a Q source (e.g., Luke 8:16; cf. Mark 4:21; Luke11:33; cf. Matt. 5:15). Some scholars have tried to explain thesources geographically: Markan material originated in Rome, Qmaterial in Antioch, M in Jerusalem, and L in Caesarea, but suchspeculations are far from proven.
Summary
Withinall of this, in seeking to understand the harmony of the Gospels, itis important to be aware of what we do not know. Many of thesolutions focus on a history behind the text to which we do not haveaccess. Modern literary critics have tended to focus more on the textit*elf than its prehistory. There is merit in this because it affirmsthe priority of the text and allows the reader to understand how apart of the text functions within the larger literary unit. It alsoallows the evangelists to be more than collectors of sources, to havewritten distinctive theological accounts. Their different emphasesmay explain some of the differences between the Gospels. Thisapproach, however, also has its dangers. Some who focus on the textover its original intent distance the text from the author’spurpose and therefore open the door for subjective interpretationsthat deny the difference between a correct and an incorrect readingof the text. It also raises the danger of reading an ancient textthrough modern eyes, losing sight of the original context.
Thechurch has been well served by four Gospel traditions. The fact thatesteem for the text has stopped overharmonization has been of greatbenefit, as the readers of the Gospels can appreciate various huesand emphases between the different accounts of the ministry of Jesus.
There are few subjects more prominent in the Bible than sin;hardly a page can be found where sin is not mentioned, described, orportrayed. As the survey that follows demonstrates, sin is one of thedriving forces of the entire Bible.
Sinin the Bible
OldTestament.Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’scommandment to the contrary (2:16–17), Eve ate from the tree ofthe knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. WhenAdam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete.They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaveswere inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with theirattempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent,Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).
Inthe midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways thatsin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised toput hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of thewoman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blowupon the offspring of the woman, the offspring ofthe womanwould defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequatecovering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implicationis that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adamand Eve, covering their sin.
InGen. 4–11 the disastrous effects of sin and death are on fulldisplay. Not even the cataclysmic judgment of the flood was able toeradicate the wickedness of the human heart (6:5; 8:21). Humansgathered in rebellion at the tower of Babel in an effort to make aname for themselves and thwart God’s intention for them toscatter across the earth (11:1–9).
Inone sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holyGod satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationshipwith human beings without compromising his justice? The short answeris: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), whoeventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemedthem from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought themto Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated onobedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant wasthe sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided asa means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrificesmade for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year toatone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement thehigh priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies andsprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took asecond goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people ofIsrael, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them onthe head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness....The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barrenregion; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev.16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinfulpeople, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.
Despitethese provisions, Israel repeatedly and persistently broke itscovenant with God. Even at the highest points of prosperity under thereign of David and his son Solomon, sin plagued God’s people,including the kings themselves. David committed adultery and murder(2Sam. 11:1–27). Solomon had hundreds of foreign wivesand concubines, who turned his heart away from Yahweh to other gods(1Kings 11:1–8). Once the nation split into two (Israeland Judah), sin and its consequences accelerated. Idolatry becamerampant. The result was exile from the land (Israel in 722 BC, Judahin 586 BC). But God refused to give up on his people. He promised toraise up a servant who would suffer for the sins of his people as aguilt offering (Isa. 52:13–53:12).
AfterGod’s people returned from exile, hopes remained high that thegreat prophetic promises, including the final remission of sins, wereat hand. But disillusionment quickly set in as the returnees remainedunder foreign oppression, the rebuilt temple was but a shell ofSolomon’s, and a Davidic king was nowhere to be found. Beforelong, God’s people were back to their old ways, turning awayfrom him. Even the priests, who were charged with the administrationof the sacrificial system dealing with the sin of the people, failedto properly carry out their duties (Mal. 1:6–2:9).
NewTestament.During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longingfor God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last,when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it wasrevealed that he would “save his people from their sins”(Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, Johnthe Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism ofrepentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereasboth Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to bethe obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation(Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13;Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also theSuffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45;cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrathof God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. Withhis justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify allwho are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). Whatneither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, JesusChrist did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).
Afterhis resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers beganproclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus didand calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one ofyou, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins”(Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness,they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned againstthem (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believerscontinue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal.5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23).The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the newheaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse(Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).
Aseven this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesisto Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’splot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative;it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved inorder for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.
Definitionand Terminology
Definitionof sin. Althoughno definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of theconcept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conformto God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action,orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered thatGod’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character,so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather isa personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited toactions. Desires (Exod. 20:17; Matt. 5:27–30), emotions (Gen.4:6–7; Matt. 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature ashuman beings (Ps. 51:5; Eph. 2:1–3) can be sinful as well.
Terminology.TheBible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin. Neatly classifying themis not easy, as there is significant overlap in the meaning and useof the various terms. Nonetheless, many of the terms fit in one ofthe following four categories.
1.Personal. Sin is an act of rebellion against God as the creator andruler of the universe. Rather than recognizing God’sself-revelation in nature and expressing gratitude, humankindfoolishly worships the creation rather than the Creator (Rom.1:19–23). The abundant love, grace, and mercy that God shows tohumans make their rebellion all the more stunning (Isa. 1:2–31).Another way of expressing the personal nature of sin is ungodlinessor impiety, which refers to lack of devotion to God (Ps. 35:16; Isa.9:17; 1Pet. 4:18).
2.Legal. A variety of words portray sin in terms drawn from thelawcourts. Words such as “transgression” and “trespass”picture sin as the violation of a specific command of God or thecrossing of a boundary that God has established (Num. 14:41–42;Rom. 4:7, 15). When individuals do things that are contrary to God’slaw, they are deemed unrighteous or unjust (Isa. 10:1; Matt. 5:45;Rom. 3:5). Breaking the covenant with God is described as violatinghis statutes and disobeying his laws (Isa. 24:5). The result isguilt, an objective legal status that is present whenever God’slaw is violated regardless of whether the individual subjectivelyfeels guilt.
3.Moral. In the most basic sense, sin is evil, the opposite of what isgood. Therefore, God’s people are to hate evil and love what isgood (Amos 5:14–15; Rom. 12:9). Similarly, Scripture contraststhe upright and the wicked (Prov. 11:11; 12:6; 14:11). One could alsoinclude here the term “iniquity,” which is used to speakof perversity or crookedness (Pss. 51:2; 78:38; Isa. 59:2). Frequentmention is also made of sexual immorality as an especially grievousdeparture from God’s ways (Num. 25:1; Rom. 1:26–27;1Cor. 5:1–11).
4.Cultic. In order for a person to approach a holy God, that individualhad to be in a state of purity before him. While a person couldbecome impure without necessarily sinning (e.g., a menstruating womanwas impure but not sinful), in some cases the term “impurity”clearly refers to a sinful state (Lev. 20:21; Isa. 1:25; Ezek.24:13). The same is true of the term “unclean.” Althoughit is frequently used in Leviticus to speak of ritual purity, inother places it clearly refers to sinful actions or states (Ps. 51:7;Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:5; 64:6).
Metaphors
Inaddition to specific terms used for “sin,” the Bible usesseveral metaphors or images to describe it. The following four areamong the more prominent.
Missingthe mark.In both Hebrew and Greek, two of the most common words for “sin”have the sense of missing the mark. But this does not mean that sinis reduced to a mistake or an oversight. The point is not that aperson simply misses the mark of what God requires; instead, it isthat he or she is aiming for the wrong target altogether (Exod. 34:9;Deut. 9:18). Regardless of whether missing the mark is intentional ornot, the individual is still responsible (Lev. 4:2–31; Num.15:30).
Departingfrom the way.Sin as departing from God’s way is especially prominent in thewisdom literature. Contrasts are drawn between the way of therighteous and the way of the wicked (Ps. 1:1, 6; Prov. 4:11–19).Wisdom is pictured as a woman who summons people to walk in her ways,but fools ignore her and depart from her ways (Prov. 9:1–18).Those who do not walk in God’s ways are eventually destroyed bytheir own wickedness (Prov. 11:5; 12:26; 13:15).
Adultery.Since God’s relationship with his people is described as amarriage (Isa. 62:4–5; Ezek. 16:8–14; Eph. 5:25–32),it is not surprising that the Bible describes their unfaithfulness asadultery. The prophet Hosea’s marriage to an adulterous womanvividly portrays Israel’s unfaithfulness to Yahweh (Hos. 1–3).When the Israelites chase after other gods, Yahweh accuses them ofspiritual adultery in extremely graphic terms (Ezek. 16:15–52).When Christians join themselves to a prostitute or participate inidolatry, they too are engaged in spiritual adultery (1Cor.6:12–20; 10:1–22).
Slavery.Sin is portrayed as a power that enslaves. The prophets make it clearthat Israel’s bondage to foreign powers is in fact a picture ofits far greater enslavement to sin (Isa. 42:8; 43:4–7;49:1–12). Paul makes a similar point when he refers to thosewho do not know Christ as slaves to sin, unable to do anything thatpleases God (Rom. 6:1–23; 8:5–8). Sin is a cosmic powerthat is capable of using even the law to entrap people in its snare(Rom. 7:7–25).
Scopeand Consequences
Sindoes not travel alone; it brings a large collection of baggage alongwith it. Here we briefly examine its scope and consequences.
Scope.The stain of sin extends to every part of the created order. As aresult of Adam’s sin, the ground was cursed to resist humanefforts to cultivate it, producing thorns and thistles (Gen.3:17–18). The promised land is described as groaning under theweight of Israel’s sin and in need of Sabbath rest (2Chron.36:21; Jer. 12:4); Paul applies the same language to all creation aswell (Rom. 8:19–22).
Sinaffects every aspect of the individual: mind, heart, will, emotions,motives, actions, and nature (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Jer. 17:9; Rom.3:9–18). Sometimes this reality is referred to as “totaldepravity.” This phrase means not that people are as sinful asthey could be but rather that every aspect of their lives is taintedby sin. As a descendant of Adam, every person enters the world as asinner who then sins (Rom. 5:12–21). Sin also pollutes societalstructures, corrupting culture, governments, nations, and economicmarkets, to name but a few.
Consequences.Since the two greatest commandments are to love God and to love one’sneighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:34–40), it makes sense that sinhas consequences on both the vertical and the horizontal level.Vertically, sin results in both physical and spiritual death (Gen.2:16–17; Rom. 5:12–14). It renders humanity guilty inGod’s court of law, turns us into God’s enemies, andsubjects us to God’s righteous wrath (Rom. 1:18; 3:19–20;5:6–11). On the horizontal level, sin causes conflict betweenindividuals and harms relationships of every kind. It breedsmistrust, jealousy, and selfishness that infect even the closestrelationships.
Conclusion
Nosubject is more unpleasant than sin. But a proper understanding ofsin is essential for understanding the gospel of Jesus Christ. As thePuritan Thomas Watson put it, “Until sin be bitter, Christ willnot be sweet.”
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
The kingdom of God is a major theme in the Bible. While thetheme is most fully developed in the NT, its originis the OT,where the emphasis falls on God’s king-ship. God is king ofIsrael (Exod. 15:18; Num. 23:21; Deut. 33:5; Isa. 43:15) and of allthe earth (2Kings 19:15; Pss. 29:10; 99:1–4; Isa. 6:5;Jer. 46:18). Juxtaposed to the concept of God’s present reignas king are references to a day when God will become king over hispeople (Isa. 24:23; 33:22; 52:7; Zeph. 3:15; Zech. 14:9). Thisemphasis on God’s kingship continues throughout Judaism andtakes on special significance in Jewish apocalypticism and itsanticipation of the kingdom of God in the age to come, whichabandoned any hope for present history. Only at the end of the agewill the kingdom of God come. This idea of God’s kingdom isfurther developed throughout the NT.
TheSynoptic Gospels
Inthe Synoptic Gospels the phrase “the kingdom of God”occurs over one hundred times in Mark, Luke, and Matthew (where“kingdom of heaven” is a synonym for “kingdom ofGod”). Three views have been defended regarding whether and towhat extent the kingdom of God was present in Jesus’ ministry.In other words, how are we to interpret the phrase “kingdom ofGod” in the Synoptics? The three views are consistenteschatology, realized eschatology, and inaugurated eschatology.
Consistenteschatology.Albert Schweitzer, a biblical scholar from the late nineteenthcentury, first popularized consistent eschatology. Here, “consistent”means consistent with the apocalyptic Judaism of Jesus’ day,which interpreted the kingdom of God as something coming in thefuture. Judaism at the time of Christ divided history into twoperiods: this age of sin, when sin rules, and the age to come, whenthe Messiah is expected to bring the kingdom of God to earth.Schweitzer concluded that an apocalyptic understanding of the kingdomwas foundational not only for Christ’s teaching, but also tounderstanding his life. Thus, Schweitzer maintained that Jesusbelieved that it was his vocation to become the coming Son of Man.Initially, Jesus revealed this messianic secret only to Peter, James,and John. Later, Peter told it to the rest of the Twelve. Judas toldthe secret to the high priest, who used it as the grounds for Jesus’execution (Mark 14:61–64; cf. Dan. 7:13).
Accordingto Schweitzer, when Jesus sent out the Twelve on a mission toproclaim the coming kingdom of God, he did not expect them to return.The Twelve were the “men of violence” (cf. Matt. 11:12)who would provoke the messianic tribulation that would herald thekingdom. Whereas some earlier scholars believed that one could onlywait passively for the kingdom, Schweitzer believed that the missionof Jesus was designed to provoke its coming. When this did nothappen, Jesus determined to give his own life as a ransom for many(Mark 10:45) and so cause the kingdom to come.
Accordingto Schweitzer, Jesus took matters into his own hands by precipitatinghis death, hoping that this would be the catalyst for God to make thewheel of history turn to its climax—the arrival of the kingdomof God. But, said Schweitzer, Jesus was wrong again, and he died indespair. So for Schweitzer, Jesus never witnessed the dawning of theage to come; it lay in the distant future, separated from thispresent age.
Onthe positive side, Schweitzer called attention to the fact that themessage of Jesus is rooted in first-century apocalyptic Judaism andits concept of the kingdom of God. This connection is stillfoundational to a proper understanding of biblical prophecy and theGospels today. On the negative side, Schweitzer’s selective useof evidence and rejection of the historicity of much of the Gospeltradition resulted in a skewed perspective on the present dimensionsof Jesus’ eschatology.
Realizedeschatology.In contrast to futurist eschatology, where the kingdom of God awaitsa final consummation at the end of history, realized eschatologyviews the kingdom of God as already realized in the person andmission of Jesus. The futurist aspects of Jesus’ teaching arereduced to a minimum, and his apocalyptic language is viewed assymbolic of theological truths.
Theperson most responsible for advocating this position is Britishscholar C.H. Dodd. In his 1935 book Parables of the Kingdom, hefocused on Jesus’ teachings that announced the arrival of thekingdom with his coming. For instance, in Luke 11:20 Jesus says, “Butif I drive out demons by the finger of God, then the kingdom of Godhas come upon you” (cf. Luke 17:21; Matt. 13). Eschatologybecomes a matter of the present experience rather than any kind offuture event. The kingdom has fully come in the messianic ministry ofJesus.
Mostinterpreters have criticized Dodd’s realized eschatology forignoring Jesus’ teachings that point to a future consummationof the kingdom (e.g., Matt. 24–25; Mark 13). When all of Jesus’teachings are considered, futurist eschatology balances realizedeschatology. To be sure, the kingdom arrived with Jesus, but Jesushimself taught that history still awaits a final completion. Thekingdom of God is both “already” and “not yet,”which leads us to the third view of the relationship of the kingdomof God to the ministry of Jesus Christ.
Inauguratedeschatology. Thethird view, inaugurated eschatology, is commonly connected with thetwentieth-century Swiss theologian Oscar Cullmann. Like others beforehim, Cullmann understood that the Jewish notion of the two agesformed an important background for understanding the message ofJesus. According to Judaism, history is divided into two periods:this age of sin and the age to come (i.e., the kingdom of God). ForJews the advent of the Messiah would effect the shift from the formerto the latter. In other words, Judaism viewed the two ages asconsecutive. According to Cullmann, Jesus Christ announced that theend of time, the kingdom of God, had arrived within history (see Mark1:15 pars.; esp. Luke 4:43; 6:20; 7:28; 8:1, 10; 9:2, 11, 27, 60, 62;10:9, 11; 11:20; 13:18, 20; 16:16; 17:20–21; 18:16–17,24–25, 29; Acts 28:31). Yet other passages suggest thatalthough the age to come had already dawned, it was not yet complete.It awaited the second coming for its full realization (Luke 13:28–29;14:15; 19:11; 21:31; 22:16, 18; 23:51; Acts 1:6). Hence the adjective“inaugurated” characterizes this eschatology. Such a viewis pervasive in the NT (see, e.g., Acts 2:17–21; 3:18, 24;1Cor. 15:24; 1Tim. 4:1; 2Tim. 3:1; Heb. 1:2; 1John2:18). So for inaugurated eschatology, the two ages are simultaneous:the age to come exists in the midst of this present age. Christianstherefore live in between the two ages until the parousia (secondcoming of Christ).
Wemay break down the data in the Synoptic Gospels regarding the“already/notyet” aspects concerning the kingdom ofGod in this manner: Mark, probably the first Gospel written, recordsJesus’ programmatic statement in 1:15: “The time hascome.... The kingdom of God has come near.”Mark, along with Luke and Matthew, then goes on to demonstrate thatJesus’ miracles, teachings, death, and resurrection inauguratedthe kingdom of God. Yet it is also clear from Matthew, Mark, and Lukethat the final manifestation of the kingdom has not yet happened. Wemay draw on Luke as representative of all three Synoptics. Luke’sGospel indicates that the kingdom was present for Jesus (Luke 7:28;8:10; 10:9–11; 11:20; 16:16; 17:20–21), but it alsoawaited the second coming for its completion (6:20–26; 11:2;12:49–50, 51–53; 13:24–30; 21:25–29;22:15–18, 30). The same dual aspect of the kingdom pertains toLuke’s second volume, Acts. The kingdom was present in Jesus’ministry and now through his disciples (Acts 1:3; 8:12; 19:8; 20:25;28:23–31), but it will not be completed until Christ comesagain (1:6; 14:22).
TheGospel of John
John’sGospel has only three references to the kingdom of God. Nicodemus wastold by Jesus that he needed to be born again to enter the kingdom ofGod (3:3–5). Yet Jesus’ kingdom is not worldly in nature,but spiritual (18:36). Although the Gospel of John contains both thepresent (“already”) aspect and the future (“notyet”) aspect, the focus is clearly on the present. This is whymany scholars label the Fourth Gospel the “Gospel of RealizedEschatology.” This emphasis on the “already” can beseen in John in the following ways: (1)Eternal life, orentrance into the kingdom of God, can be a present possession (3:5–6,36; 6:47, 51, 58; 8:51; 10:28; 11:24–26). (2)Theeschatological promise of sonship is granted to the believer in Jesusnow (1:12–13; 3:3–8; 4:14). (3)The generalresurrection has already begun (5:25). (4)The Spirit, the giftof the end time, currently indwells believers (7:37–39;14:15–31; 15:26–27; 16:5–16; 20:22–23).(5)Final judgment is determined by one’s present responseto Jesus (3:19; 5:22–24, 27, 30–38; 9:38; 12:31–33).(6)The spirit of antichrist has already entered the world sceneto oppose Christ (6:70; 13:2, 27). (7)Jesus’ death on thecross seems to absorb some elements of the messianic woes or aspectsof tribulation. In other words, Jesus’ passion was where theend-time holy war was waged, and his death and resurrection began theend of the forces of evil (15:18–16:11).
Onthe other hand, the Gospel of John also includes some typical future(“not yet”) aspects of eschatology. For example, thefuture resurrection is still expected (5:26–30). Likewise, thefuture second coming of Christ is alluded to (14:1–4; 21:22).Admittedly, however, the “already” aspect of the kingdomof God seems to overshadow the “not yet” perspective inthe Fourth Gospel.
PaulineLiterature
Thephrase “kingdom of God” and/or “kingdom of Christ”occurs twelve times in Paul’s writings.
Rom.14:17 – kingdom of God (present tense)
1Cor. 4:20 – kingdom of God (present tense)
1Cor. 6:9-10 – kingdom of God (2x) (future tense)
1Cor. 15:24 – kingdom of Christ/God (present/future tense)
1Cor. 15:50 – kingdom of God (future tense)
Gal.5:21 – kingdom of God (future tense)
Eph.5:5 – kingdom of Christ/God (future tense)
Col.1:13 – kingdom of the Son (present tense)
Col.4:11 – kingdom of God (present tense)
1Thess. 2:12 – his [God’s] kingdom (future tense)
2Thess. 1:5 – kingdom of God (future tense)
Threeobservations emerge from the chart: (1)The kingdom ofChrist/God is both present and future, already here and not yetcomplete. This is consistent with the Gospels and Acts. (2)Christand God are, in at least two instances, interchanged, suggestingequality of status between them (cf. Eph. 5:5; Rev. 11:15; 12:10).(3)In 1Cor. 15:24 we find the most precise description ofthe exact relationship between the kingdoms of Christ and God: theinterim messianic kingdom begun at the resurrection of Christ willone day give way to the eternal kingdom of God. Such a temporarykingdom is attested to in apocalyptic Judaism and may underlie Rev.20:1–6.
Christianstherefore live in between the two ages, in the messianic kingdom.
Hebrewsand the General Epistles
Hebrewsand the General Epistles continue the theme of the “already/notyet”aspects of the kingdom.
Hebrews.The following ideas associated in Second Temple Judaism with thearrival of God’s kingdom are seen by the author of Hebrews tohave been fulfilled at the first coming of Christ: (1)theappearance of the Messiah of the last days indicates the dawning ofthe kingdom of God (1:2; 9:9–10); (2)the greattribulation/messianic woes that were expected to occur in connectionwith the advent of the Messiah are now here (2:5–18; cf. 5:8–9;7:27–28; 10:12; 12:2); (3)the outpouring of the HolySpirit has happened (6:4–5); (4)the manifestation of theeschatological high priest at the end of history has taken place inJesus (7:26–28), who has also established the new covenant ofthe last days (8:6–13). Compare the preceding statements inHebrews with that author’s explicit mention of the presence ofthe kingdom of God in 12:18–28. And yet the kingdom of God isnot yet fully here. The church continues to suffer the messianicwoes, as is evidenced in the intermingling of Jesus’ sufferingof the great tribulation with the present afflictions of theChristian (2:5–18; 3:7–4:6; 5:7–6:12; 10:19–39;12:1–2; 13:11–16). Furthermore, the exhortations topersevere in the faith that punctuate the book of Hebrews (2:1–4;3:7–4:13; 5:11–6:12; 10:19–39; 12:14–29) area familiar theme in Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature.
TheGeneral Epistles.The main message of James is that the last days are here (1:2; 5:3)and with it the messianic woes (1:2–12; 5:1–12).Therefore, believers will need to faithfully endure the greattribulation until the second coming of Christ. But there are twoindications that James also teaches that the kingdom of God hasdawned in the midst of the great tribulation. First, Christiansexperience even now the eschatological quality of joy (James 1:2–3;cf. Joel 2:21–27). Second, Christians also share in theend-time gift of wisdom (James 1:5–8).
FirstPeteris similar to James with regard to its inaugurated eschatology. Thus,the church suffers the messianic woes/great tribulation (1Pet.1:6, 11; 3:13–17; 4:12–19; 5:1–9). Nevertheless,the age to come/kingdom of God has broken into the midst of this age,as evidenced by the eschatological joy and God’s protectivepower that it brings (1:5–6).
SecondPeterdoes seem to stress the “not yet” aspect of the kingdomof God. Thus, the kingdom of God still waits to be entered (1:11), ishindered by end-time apostasy (2Pet. 2), and has been postponed(3:1–10). Yet the “already” aspect of the kingdomis not entirely absent. This is evidenced by the fact that thetransfiguration of Christ on the mountain was a display of the comingpower and glory of the age to come, a glory revealed to the discipleson the mountain and now communicated to all believers (1:16–19).
Judeis devoted to alerting Christians to the reality that they are in themidst of the end-time holy war (vv. 3, 20–23), as can be seenby their struggle with the false teaching of end-time apostasy (vv.5–19). Nevertheless, because believers possess theeschatological gift of the Holy Spirit, they will prevail to fullyenter the kingdom of God (v.20).
TheLetters of John attest to the overlapping of the two ages—thatis, inaugurated eschatology. Thus, on the one hand, the spirit ofantichrist is here (1John 2:18; 2John 7), along with thefalse teaching that it breeds (1John 2:20–29; cf. 2–3John); but on the other hand, the Johannine community has theend-time anointing of the Holy Spirit, which preserves believers fromevil and deception (1John 2:20–21; 3:1–10).Moreover, Christians presently have eternal life through Christ, oneof the blessings of the kingdom of God (1John 5:11–13).
Revelation
The“already/notyet” aspects of the kingdom of God aremanifested in Revelation in the following way: the kingdom of God hasalready dawned in heaven, but it has not yet appeared on earth.Regarding the former, it is clear from 1:9; 5:1–14; 12:1–6that Jesus’ death and resurrection inaugurated the advent ofthe kingdom of God in heaven. Thus, Jesus obediently underwent themessianic woes on the cross and was then raised to heavenly glory,triumphant over the great tribulation. There in heaven, Christ reignsas the invisible Lord over all (including Caesar). But that thekingdom of God has not yet descended to earth is clear in Revelationfrom two present realities. First, even though Jesus has endured thegreat tribulation/messianic woes, his followers continue to face manytrials (chaps. 6–18). There is no deliverance for them fromsuch affliction until the return of Christ in glory (chap. 19). Theonly possible exception to this is the divine protection of the144,000 (chaps. 7; 14). Second, the kingdom of God has not appearedon earth; that event awaits the parousia (chap. 20 [assuming that thepremillennial interpretation of that chapter is the most viablereading]). In all of this, it seems that the messianic woes/greattribulation are the divine means for purging the earth in preparationfor the future arrival of the temporal, messianic kingdom (chap. 20).After Christ’s one-thousand-year reign on earth, this temporalmessianic kingdom will give way to the eternal kingdom of God and itsnew earth and new heaven (chaps. 21–22). It must beacknowledged, however, that interpretations of chapters 20–22greatly vary, depending on whether one takes a premillennial,amillennial, or postmillennial perspective.
Conclusion
Thepreceding data thus seem to confirm that the most apt description ofthe relationship between the two ages and the kingdom of God thatinforms the NT is inaugurated eschatology: with the first coming ofChrist, the kingdom of God/the age to come dawned, but it will not beuntil the second coming of Christ that the age to come/kingdom of Godwill be complete. The church therefore lives in between the times.That is to say, the age to come has broken into this present age, andit is only through the eye of faith that one can now perceive thepresence of the kingdom of God.
OldTestament
Preconditionsto love. Accordingto the OT, three preconditions must exist for us to know what itmeans to love.
First,we have the capacity for relationships because we are made in thelikeness of a personal God. God created us to reciprocate love backto him, in a relationship of mutual love.
Second,the true meaning of love depends on a true understanding of God,whose love causes him to pursue human beings even though their heartshave turned away from him for other substitute “loves.”This second point assumes that human beings still love, but they doso in a way distorted by sin. Sin causes human beings to live theirlives as though God did not exist. However, God in his mercy haschosen to intervene through his redemptive acts in history andthrough revelatory speech in order to deliver people from theblindness and corruption of sin. His pursuit of his unfaithful sonsand daughters gives us a picture of what true love looks like.
Third,God’s pursuit of human beings in history was by means ofelection and the establishment of a covenant. God chose to makehimself known to a particular people, those who would descend fromAbraham. God called Abraham to leave his country and go to a newplace that he would inherit as a new homeland, where his descendantswould be blessed (Gen. 12:1–3; 15; 17). God’s promise toAbraham took the form of an everlasting covenant, by which heguaranteed that he would fulfill what he had promised. He would bethe God of Abraham’s descendants, and they would be his people.They would receive the land of Canaan as an inheritance (17:6–8).In response, Abraham’s descendants were to obey God’scovenant by circumcising their male children (17:9–14). Thiscovenant would depend not on human faithfulness but on God’sfaithfulness. God would redeem this people to be his own specialpeople.
Severalgenerations later, God addressed the people through Moses, tellingthem that he chose them for no other reason than that he loved them(Deut. 7:7–8). Through Moses, God freed the people from theirslavery in Egypt and gave them the law. The law told them how to liveholy lives in response to God. It also included the provisions foratonement through the sacrificial system. In short, loving Godinvolved obeying his statutes.
Lovein wisdom books.The OT wisdom books Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes give us furtherinsight into the meaning of love. Proverbs exhorts its readers,“Above all else, guard your heart, for everything you do flowsfrom it” (4:23). One’s affections are the gateway to theallegiances of one’s heart. Once one’s affections havebeen hijacked by sinful passions, allegiance to God is subjugated toanother “master.” To the degree that sin usurps thethrone of the heart, it will steer the course of one’s actions(i.e., one’s “path”).
Inthe book of Job, Satan is convinced that Job serves God only becauseGod blesses Job, so Satan challenges God to let him afflict Job.Satan insists that if God removes Job’s blessings, Job willcurse God to his face (1:10–12). When God agrees to remove thehedge of protection and allows Job to suffer, the depth of Job’slove for God is vindicated. Although perplexed that God would allowhim to endure such suffering, he endures without forsaking God. Jobloved the giver more than his gifts, so his love did not turn tohatred when the gifts of God were removed.
Inthe book of Ecclesiastes, Qoheleth (the Teacher) reflects honestly onthe many vain pursuits and unexplainable dissonances thatcharacterize life “under the sun.” Only faith-filled lovefor God can enable one to live each moment of life with joy insteadof striving to find meaning in “under the sun” pursuits.This love chooses to trust the inscrutable wisdom of God in the faceof life’s many enigmas, uncertainties, and sufferings. One cando this honestly because of the belief that God’s just ruleover the affairs of the universe will be vindicated at the future dayof judgment (Eccles. 12:14).
Marriagemetaphor.The Bible uses the metaphor of marriage to describe God’scovenant relationship with his people (Isa. 54:5–8). Thismetaphor captures the intimate character of the relationship that Goddesires to have with his people. Marriage is the most intimate humanrelationship in two ways. First, marriage is a relationship in whichknowledge is the most intimate. A spouse can see many of the flawsthat are hidden from others. Thus, each spouse must accept and lovethe other for who that person is, in spite of his or herimperfections. Second, the depth and passion of the expressions oflove are most intimate in marriage. Consequently, there is no greaterpain than that caused by unfaithfulness to this covenant.
Sadly,as the story of the OT unfolds, God’s “wife”betrays him. How so? His people worship idols in their hearts (Ezek.14:1–5). Because God is jealous for the exclusive love of hispeople, idolatry is spiritual unfaithfulness. God wants both theallegiance and the affection of their hearts to be reservedexclusively for him. The people continue the formalities of worship,but their hearts have turned away from God. The book of Hoseaillustrates the sense of betrayal that God feels when his people arespiritually unfaithful. God tells Hosea to marry a woman who will beunfaithful to him. Subsequently, she leaves Hosea for one lover afteranother. This story is intended to give God’s people a vividpicture of how painful their spiritual betrayal of him is. His heartis crushed by the rebellious and idolatrous condition of his people.Hosea’s wife ends up on the market as a prostitute, and Godtells him to buy her back and love her again.
NewTestament
Thestory of God’s love for his people is expanded by what theFather did centuries later when he sent Jesus to pay the ransom forthe sins of his people so that they might be healed of theirrebellion and receive eternal life (John 3:16; 17:24). The death andresurrection of Christ were necessary because sin had to be atonedfor. This love is a free gift that comes to the one who trusts inChrist for forgiveness of sin and a new heart. The new heart inclinesone to please God. The gift of the Spirit enables one to bear the“fruit” of love (Gal. 5:22–23). As Abraham’sengrafted children (Gal. 3:7), believers are called by God to live aspilgrims on their way to a heavenly promised land (Heb. 11:9–10;1Pet. 2:11).
Christmodeled genuine love by serving us (Mark 10:42–45). His loveshould motivate us and enable us to practice sacrificial servicetoward others (Matt. 22:39; 1John 3:16). It should also causeus to practice forbearance, long-suffering, and forgiveness towardthose who wrong us (Matt. 18:21–35). It should cause us torepay evil with good (Rom. 12:14). Our love for truth should motivateus to act in the best interests of others (1Cor. 13:4–8)in the hope that they may become reconciled to God (2Tim.2:24–26).
In the NT the most common word used for “minister”is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,”diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]).These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe thewhole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describeeither a special ministry performed by an official functionary(1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). Inthe early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchiesbut on services performed (1Tim. 3:1–13).
Theministry of Jesus.The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesusunderstood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that ofserving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, hecalled his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the newcommunity that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28;23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NTwriters describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39;Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministryof Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
Theministry of the church.The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues theseministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summaryof the overarching ministries of the church, which include speakingthe words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod.19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individualmembers took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks ofservice. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27;Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it wasanother believer’s responsibility to confront that waywardperson and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt.18:15–20).
Althoughministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were thosewith special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart forparticular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apartApollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7).The church called on special functionaries to carry out specificministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individualsto serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry therelief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19,23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, theelders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching andpreaching and healing for the whole church.
Allthe ministries of the church, whether performed by believers ingeneral or by some specially appointed functionary, were based ongifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26).God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works ofservice (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet.4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’srelationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians areequal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paulidentifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions:apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ callscertain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. Theones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the churchbut rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph.4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or herbecause those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor.4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results inleadership.
Itbecomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others forministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turnminister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim.2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is tobuild up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ(Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16;1Thess. 2:19–20).
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesusfollowers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christembodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in humanhistory.
Introduction
Name.Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). Thename “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was acommon male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually werenamed after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry ofJesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesusconstitute the turning point in human history. From a historicalperspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,both Christian and non-Christian first-century and earlysecond-century literary sources are extant, but they are few innumber. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initialresistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Romanhistorian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailingworldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sourcestherefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christiansources.
TheNT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry ofJesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four SourceHypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as asource by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (fromGerman Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their ownindividual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additionalsources.
Theearly church tried to put together singular accounts, so-calledGospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionitesrepresents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Anotherharmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was producedaround AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning thelife of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, thePauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was apassion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. Thefirst extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’sletters (1Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognizedfrom the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1Cor.15:13–14).
Amongnon-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in aletter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governorof Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentionsChristians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about thehistory of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Romebecause of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Somescholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
TheJewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a storyabout the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in adifferent part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus isthe Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). Themajority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic butheavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but thesereferences are very late and of little historical value.
NoncanonicalGospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospelof Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel ofJames, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, theEgerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these maycontain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most partthey are late and unreliable.
Jesus’Life
Birthand childhood. TheGospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehemduring the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesuswas probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’sdeath (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of avirginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governorQuirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place inBethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at thetime of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to eitherconfirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must bedetermined on the basis of one’s view regarding the generalreliability of the Gospel tradition.
Onthe eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keepingwith the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home ofhis parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel ofLuke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth instrength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke alsocontains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesuswas born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered atemple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford tosacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, ormetal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth wasnot a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently commonfirst-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Cananything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesuswas also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy weresurely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnantbefore her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only theintervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinshiphospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay withdistant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcomebecause of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Maryhad to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feedingtrough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later inNazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming himas one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewiserejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucifyhim!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His ownsiblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamedof his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his motherinto the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,temptation, and start of ministry.After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring tohim as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instantministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into thewilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that thetemptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Lukeidentify three specific temptations by the devil, though their orderfor the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesuswas tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine interventionafter jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’skingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,quoting Scripture in response.
Matthewand Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum inGalilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirtyyears of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity orperhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of theLevites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning ofJesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples andthe sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’public ministry: chronology.Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple hadbeen forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as thetemple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out themoney changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding andexpansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during theeighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry ofJohn the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From thesedates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of thereign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset ofJesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
TheGospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast inJohn 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended overthree or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a halfyears. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came ona Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death wastherefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and hisJudean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry inGalilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galileanministry.The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and aroundGalilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that thekingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment ofprophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ firstteaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for hiscalling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection andsuffering.
AllGospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in hisGalilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioningof the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers isrecorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministryis the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, inparticular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synopticsfocus on healings and exorcisms.
DuringJesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with hisidentity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner ofBeelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesustold parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growingkingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humblebeginnings (4:1–32).
TheSynoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority orability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized manydemons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fedfive thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark6:48–49).
Inthe later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew andtraveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are notwritten with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns toGalilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey toJerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fearresolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ discipleswith lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed thePharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demandinga sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, whoconfessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus didprovide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesuswithdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician womanrequested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sentonly to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans hadlong resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality thatallotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Eventhe dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-muteman in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’sconfession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The citywas the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judeanministry.Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry ashe resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually ledto his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem intothree phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of thejourney. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, andthe demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journeytoward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvationand judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase ofthe journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are themain themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Socialconflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposteinteractions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomicfeathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who hadlittle value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;Luke 18:15–17).
PassionWeek, death, and resurrection. Eachof the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with thecrowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Lukedescribes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during whichJesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
InJerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because thewhole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “beganlooking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segmentof Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s owndestruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, JudasIscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’arrest (14:10–11).
Atthe Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a newcovenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned thedisciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and laterhe prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agonyand submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission bymaking disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
TheIdentity of Jesus Christ
Variousaspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses toJesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning andexamining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritualrealm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). AtJesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus wastransfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voiceaffirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and otherguards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.Mark 15:39).
Miracleworker.In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers werepart of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs andmiracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of Godover various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus hisidentity.
Nochallenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miraclesand signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed astorm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised thedead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculousfeedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked onwater (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
ThePharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterousgeneration asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—hisdeath and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbisor Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguishedhim was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathereddisciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to joinhim in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesusused a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Majorthemes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the costof discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, hisidentity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’skingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come tofulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. Theseconflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions inwhich the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus usedthese interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gavereplies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’swill, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. TheSynoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations ofviolating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answersto such accusations often echoed the essence of 1Sam. 15:22,“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). Anoverall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’public teaching.
TheSermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outwardobedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equalto murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfullyamounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revengingwrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesusvalued compassion above traditions and customs, even those containedwithin the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter ofthe law.
Jesus’teachings found their authority in the reality of God’simminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—thefamily of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among propheticteachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his owngrounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examplesof a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include theoccasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesusused an aphorism in response to accusations about his associationswith sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking thelaw, he pointed to an OT exception (1Sam. 21:1–6) todeclare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also appliedthe “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, sincewomen suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly becameoutcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, andeschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internaltransformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring onlove (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus tobless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesustaught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father isperfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as yourFather is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” onesin Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godlycharacter.
Somescholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end oftime. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of histeachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words willnever pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore theglories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability wascommon in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babyloniancaptivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace andprotection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice andrighteousness (2Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whosesuffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle ofexpectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianicimages in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearerscalled him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesusas the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). Inline with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesusfocused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regenerationthrough his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatologicalprophet.Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewishapocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God tointervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom ofGod. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ propheciesconcerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). Inaddition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representativeof the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images ofcoming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
SufferingSon of God.Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth wasparadigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so herevealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptlyportrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ ownteachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “TheSon of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give hislife as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly careerended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewishcomponents (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyonehanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with acrucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed asa lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referredto this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed ofthe gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
ExaltedLord.Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of JesusChrist indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) andrisen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus waswitnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on theroad to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appearedto as many as five hundred others (1Cor. 15:6). He appeared inbodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesusascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
Asmuch as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory overdeath was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through hisresurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his lifeand work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him asLord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and hisintercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascensionsignaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return inglory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom(1Cor. 15:24; 2Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’Purpose and Community
Inthe Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, whopreaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter thekingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, onemade in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
Inthe prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identityof Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidingsof salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of thegospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Lukelikewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose ofJesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is thekingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John theBaptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesusanswered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen andheard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosyare cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good newsis proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, aspresented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery ofsight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God alreadypresent in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
Inthe Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signsthroughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, hisidentity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundantlife is lived out in community.
Inthe Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community ofGod (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but theycontinued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout hisministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a callto loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock Iwill build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call tocommunity. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community wasreplaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’sfamily—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained byadopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through theinitiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
TheQuests for the Historical Jesus
Thequest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from ahistorical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary byscholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding ofthe church.
Thebeginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecturenotes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus thatrejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. Heconcluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’sconclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry ofrationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continuedthroughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “firstquest” for the historical Jesus.
In1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of theHistorical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: EineGeschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of thefirst quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-centuryresearchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming thehistorical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching aninoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’sconclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was aneschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days inJerusalem.
Withthe demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as RudolfBultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historicalJesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’sformer students launched what has come to be known as the “newquest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). Thisquest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was stilldominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels islargely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
Asthe rebuilding years of the post–World WarII era wanedand scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeologicalfinds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on towhat has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeksespecially to research and understand Jesus in his social andcultural setting.
Both Testaments proclaim, “The earth is the Lord’s,and everything in it” (Ps. 24:1; 1Cor. 10:26). Only theLord and Creator of the universe can rightfully claim ownership overanything, be it physical, spiritual, or moral (Job 41:11). Thus,“every good and perfect gift is from above, coming down fromthe Father of the heavenly lights” (James 1:17). He even ownshuman beings themselves. In a biblical worldview, God alone exercisesownership. People, however, exercise stewardship over what he hasgiven.
Scriptureguides and regulates human relationships with respect to owningproperty. While people are ultimately only stewards, they must neverwrongly take or desire what God has entrusted to others. ThereforeGod commands, “You shall not steal” (Exod. 20:15) and“You shall not covet” (20:17). The book of Proverbsexplains how to wisely dispose of one’s goods (Prov. 3:9, 10;11:25; 22:9), as does Jesus’ parable of the talents (Matt.25:14–30). Numerous passages teach that human “ownership”should be earned through work, if possible (Jer. 29:5–7;2Thess. 3:10). People should acknowledge their possessions asgifts from God by giving to the poor (Eph. 4:28) and to God’sappointed leaders, both secular and Christian: “Give back toCaesar what is Caesar’s and to God what is God’s”(Mark 12:17 [cf. Rom. 13:6; 1Tim. 5:18]).
Infact, the whole Bible can be read as the drama of the divine ownerrelating to his human stewards. At creation, God charges Adam and Eve“to work ... and take care of” the garden(Gen. 2:15), thereby entrusting all creation to human care. Indisobedience they abuse their stewardship, as will their offspring.In the fall, humankind forfeits God’s benefits in paradise(Gen. 3); he disowns his unfaithful stewards. The rest of Scripturerelates how God redeems a people for himself, adopting thedisinherited back into his household. He begins by promising Abrahamthat his offspring, Israel, will possess a land, Canaan (Gen. 17:8),which will be a kind of new paradise (Exod. 3:8). The Israelitesconquer the territory, but over time they prove to be unfaithfulstewards. After breaking God’s covenant, they lose the land inexile.
Jesus’parable of the landowner in Matt. 21:33–44 is basically acapsule version of this grand biblical story. Both come to a climaxwhen God sends his Son, Jesus Christ. He comes to “buy back”his people from their sins as the one faithful servant (Mark 10:45),even unto death on a cross (Phil. 2:8). Jesus pays for his elect’sadoption with his blood, so now believers partake in God’sownership over all things. “All things are yours, whether ...the world or life or death or the present or the future—all areyours, and you are of Christ, and Christ is of God” (1Cor.3:21–23).
The idea of redemption was well known in antiquity. More thana simple notion of deliverance, redemption spoke as much of the graceof the redeemer as of the deliverance of the redeemed. Classicaltexts use the Greek word apolytrōsis(“redemption”) to articulate the ransom payment given torelease a slave, a captive of war, or someone sentenced to death. Thegroup of words based on the Greek term lytron(“ransom”) conveys the idea of payment for release. Thecorresponding Hebrew word padahis a commercial term rooted in the idea of the transfer of ownership.
OldTestament
Theexperience of the exodus gave the idea of redemption religioussignificance. The commemoration of this redemptive event included thededication of the firstborn to Yahweh (Exod. 13:12–13).Moreover, Israel itself, God’s own firstborn (Exod. 4:22), wasredeemed by Yahweh—language that Isaiah later picked up todescribe Abraham (Isa. 29:22). As the theme of redemption continuedto broaden, God’s redemption came to include deliverance fromall Israel’s troubles (Ps. 25:22). Redemption included thewhole of the human situation, not just the eternal destiny (or thenew age to come).
AnotherHebrew term, ga’al,generally relates to the kinsman-redeemer. In the case of a personwho had sold property due to poverty or even gone into slavery to paya debt, a kinsman could become a redeemer by buying back the property(Lev. 25:25–28) and/or purchasing freedom from slavery(25:47–49). The book of Ruth describes this, detailing therelationship between the impoverished Ruth and Boaz, thekinsman-redeemer. The prophets and the psalms apply thisunderstanding to how God redeems Israel (Isa. 43:1–3; Ps.19:14; cf. Job 19:25). God, however, does not pay ransom to anyone(Isa. 52:3–4); rather, he causes redemption by his power(45:13).
Theawaited Messiah, promised through the prophets, would become God’sultimate expression of his redemptive love. When the people’scontinued rebellion against God finally broke the Mosaic covenant,God’s judgment sent them into captivity and exile in Babylon.Now, without place and identity, their only hope for a future was ifGod would ransom his people and restore his covenant with them. Thislonging for God’s redemption grew during the exile. As thepersecutions increased further during the so-called intertestamentalperiod (an approximately four-hundred-year period between the OT andthe NT), the earlier prophetic promises became a full-blown messianichope. God will send the Messiah as redeemer to ransom his people fromGreek and Roman oppression.
NewTestament
TheNT champions the theme of redemption (see Luke 4:18–19). WhenJesus came, teaching that he would redeem his people from the slaveryof sin (John 8:34–36), he spoke of himself as a ransom for many(Matt. 20:28// Mark 10:45). Paul’s theology of the crossaccentuated the same connection between sin, slavery, and Jesus’ransom. He saw people as sold into slavery under sin (Rom. 6:17;7:14) and redeemed by Jesus’ sacrifice (3:24). The Christianidea of ransom followedthe accepted contemporary idea that people who are sentenced to death(Rom. 6:23) can gain their life back if a redeemer buys it with aransom (Col. 1:13–14). The predominance of apolytrōsis inthe NT, compared to common Greek literature of that period,underscores its significance for early Christian conceptualization.
Withoutreflecting on to whom the ransom should be paid, which was made anissue by later theologians and philosophers, the NT authors highlightJesus’ blood as the ransom payment (e.g., Eph. 1:7; Heb. 9:12;cf. Rev. 5:9). The emphases of the NT remain on the need oftheredeemed, the grace of the redeemer, and the effects of theredemption. Christ’s ransom transfers the redeemed from onesphere of influence to another, or rather, from one owner to another.Incomparable to commonly known worldly ransoms, which consisted ofmonetary means and remained external to the redeemer himself (1Pet.3:18–19), Jesus substituted his own life for the life of thosehe redeemed (antilytron hyper [1Tim. 2:6]). God still did notpay ransom to anyone, but rather caused it by his own power.
TheOT notion that redemption points to God’s involvement in thepresent, allowing for a historical experience of salvation, fills theNT conception as well. This is seen most clearly in Paul’stheological ethics. The new ownership accomplished by Jesus’redemption enables a new kind of life to be lived in freedom from theslavery of sin (1Cor. 6:20; Gal. 5:1). More than just a matterof ethics, it follows Jesus’ emphasis of an “already butnot yet” experience of God’s presence. Redemption isevidenced by the Spirit’s presence (Rom. 8:1–17).
Althoughredemption is present, the fullness of it still awaits the future(Rom. 8:18–23), when the redeemer will fill all in all (1Cor.15:28; Col. 1:19–20). Contrary to Hellenistic conceptions ofredemption, which expect redemption from the body, Paul expectsredemption of the body. God’s eschatological redemption isuniversal; it restores the relationship between creation and theCreator (Col. 1:21–23; Eph. 1:7–10).
The idea of redemption was well known in antiquity. More thana simple notion of deliverance, redemption spoke as much of the graceof the redeemer as of the deliverance of the redeemed. Classicaltexts use the Greek word apolytrōsis(“redemption”) to articulate the ransom payment given torelease a slave, a captive of war, or someone sentenced to death. Thegroup of words based on the Greek term lytron(“ransom”) conveys the idea of payment for release. Thecorresponding Hebrew word padahis a commercial term rooted in the idea of the transfer of ownership.
OldTestament
Theexperience of the exodus gave the idea of redemption religioussignificance. The commemoration of this redemptive event included thededication of the firstborn to Yahweh (Exod. 13:12–13).Moreover, Israel itself, God’s own firstborn (Exod. 4:22), wasredeemed by Yahweh—language that Isaiah later picked up todescribe Abraham (Isa. 29:22). As the theme of redemption continuedto broaden, God’s redemption came to include deliverance fromall Israel’s troubles (Ps. 25:22). Redemption included thewhole of the human situation, not just the eternal destiny (or thenew age to come).
AnotherHebrew term, ga’al,generally relates to the kinsman-redeemer. In the case of a personwho had sold property due to poverty or even gone into slavery to paya debt, a kinsman could become a redeemer by buying back the property(Lev. 25:25–28) and/or purchasing freedom from slavery(25:47–49). The book of Ruth describes this, detailing therelationship between the impoverished Ruth and Boaz, thekinsman-redeemer. The prophets and the psalms apply thisunderstanding to how God redeems Israel (Isa. 43:1–3; Ps.19:14; cf. Job 19:25). God, however, does not pay ransom to anyone(Isa. 52:3–4); rather, he causes redemption by his power(45:13).
Theawaited Messiah, promised through the prophets, would become God’sultimate expression of his redemptive love. When the people’scontinued rebellion against God finally broke the Mosaic covenant,God’s judgment sent them into captivity and exile in Babylon.Now, without place and identity, their only hope for a future was ifGod would ransom his people and restore his covenant with them. Thislonging for God’s redemption grew during the exile. As thepersecutions increased further during the so-called intertestamentalperiod (an approximately four-hundred-year period between the OT andthe NT), the earlier prophetic promises became a full-blown messianichope. God will send the Messiah as redeemer to ransom his people fromGreek and Roman oppression.
NewTestament
TheNT champions the theme of redemption (see Luke 4:18–19). WhenJesus came, teaching that he would redeem his people from the slaveryof sin (John 8:34–36), he spoke of himself as a ransom for many(Matt. 20:28// Mark 10:45). Paul’s theology of the crossaccentuated the same connection between sin, slavery, and Jesus’ransom. He saw people as sold into slavery under sin (Rom. 6:17;7:14) and redeemed by Jesus’ sacrifice (3:24). The Christianidea of ransom followedthe accepted contemporary idea that people who are sentenced to death(Rom. 6:23) can gain their life back if a redeemer buys it with aransom (Col. 1:13–14). The predominance of apolytrōsis inthe NT, compared to common Greek literature of that period,underscores its significance for early Christian conceptualization.
Withoutreflecting on to whom the ransom should be paid, which was made anissue by later theologians and philosophers, the NT authors highlightJesus’ blood as the ransom payment (e.g., Eph. 1:7; Heb. 9:12;cf. Rev. 5:9). The emphases of the NT remain on the need oftheredeemed, the grace of the redeemer, and the effects of theredemption. Christ’s ransom transfers the redeemed from onesphere of influence to another, or rather, from one owner to another.Incomparable to commonly known worldly ransoms, which consisted ofmonetary means and remained external to the redeemer himself (1Pet.3:18–19), Jesus substituted his own life for the life of thosehe redeemed (antilytron hyper [1Tim. 2:6]). God still did notpay ransom to anyone, but rather caused it by his own power.
TheOT notion that redemption points to God’s involvement in thepresent, allowing for a historical experience of salvation, fills theNT conception as well. This is seen most clearly in Paul’stheological ethics. The new ownership accomplished by Jesus’redemption enables a new kind of life to be lived in freedom from theslavery of sin (1Cor. 6:20; Gal. 5:1). More than just a matterof ethics, it follows Jesus’ emphasis of an “already butnot yet” experience of God’s presence. Redemption isevidenced by the Spirit’s presence (Rom. 8:1–17).
Althoughredemption is present, the fullness of it still awaits the future(Rom. 8:18–23), when the redeemer will fill all in all (1Cor.15:28; Col. 1:19–20). Contrary to Hellenistic conceptions ofredemption, which expect redemption from the body, Paul expectsredemption of the body. God’s eschatological redemption isuniversal; it restores the relationship between creation and theCreator (Col. 1:21–23; Eph. 1:7–10).
The idea of redemption was well known in antiquity. More thana simple notion of deliverance, redemption spoke as much of the graceof the redeemer as of the deliverance of the redeemed. Classicaltexts use the Greek word apolytrōsis(“redemption”) to articulate the ransom payment given torelease a slave, a captive of war, or someone sentenced to death. Thegroup of words based on the Greek term lytron(“ransom”) conveys the idea of payment for release. Thecorresponding Hebrew word padahis a commercial term rooted in the idea of the transfer of ownership.
OldTestament
Theexperience of the exodus gave the idea of redemption religioussignificance. The commemoration of this redemptive event included thededication of the firstborn to Yahweh (Exod. 13:12–13).Moreover, Israel itself, God’s own firstborn (Exod. 4:22), wasredeemed by Yahweh—language that Isaiah later picked up todescribe Abraham (Isa. 29:22). As the theme of redemption continuedto broaden, God’s redemption came to include deliverance fromall Israel’s troubles (Ps. 25:22). Redemption included thewhole of the human situation, not just the eternal destiny (or thenew age to come).
AnotherHebrew term, ga’al,generally relates to the kinsman-redeemer. In the case of a personwho had sold property due to poverty or even gone into slavery to paya debt, a kinsman could become a redeemer by buying back the property(Lev. 25:25–28) and/or purchasing freedom from slavery(25:47–49). The book of Ruth describes this, detailing therelationship between the impoverished Ruth and Boaz, thekinsman-redeemer. The prophets and the psalms apply thisunderstanding to how God redeems Israel (Isa. 43:1–3; Ps.19:14; cf. Job 19:25). God, however, does not pay ransom to anyone(Isa. 52:3–4); rather, he causes redemption by his power(45:13).
Theawaited Messiah, promised through the prophets, would become God’sultimate expression of his redemptive love. When the people’scontinued rebellion against God finally broke the Mosaic covenant,God’s judgment sent them into captivity and exile in Babylon.Now, without place and identity, their only hope for a future was ifGod would ransom his people and restore his covenant with them. Thislonging for God’s redemption grew during the exile. As thepersecutions increased further during the so-called intertestamentalperiod (an approximately four-hundred-year period between the OT andthe NT), the earlier prophetic promises became a full-blown messianichope. God will send the Messiah as redeemer to ransom his people fromGreek and Roman oppression.
NewTestament
TheNT champions the theme of redemption (see Luke 4:18–19). WhenJesus came, teaching that he would redeem his people from the slaveryof sin (John 8:34–36), he spoke of himself as a ransom for many(Matt. 20:28// Mark 10:45). Paul’s theology of the crossaccentuated the same connection between sin, slavery, and Jesus’ransom. He saw people as sold into slavery under sin (Rom. 6:17;7:14) and redeemed by Jesus’ sacrifice (3:24). The Christianidea of ransom followedthe accepted contemporary idea that people who are sentenced to death(Rom. 6:23) can gain their life back if a redeemer buys it with aransom (Col. 1:13–14). The predominance of apolytrōsis inthe NT, compared to common Greek literature of that period,underscores its significance for early Christian conceptualization.
Withoutreflecting on to whom the ransom should be paid, which was made anissue by later theologians and philosophers, the NT authors highlightJesus’ blood as the ransom payment (e.g., Eph. 1:7; Heb. 9:12;cf. Rev. 5:9). The emphases of the NT remain on the need oftheredeemed, the grace of the redeemer, and the effects of theredemption. Christ’s ransom transfers the redeemed from onesphere of influence to another, or rather, from one owner to another.Incomparable to commonly known worldly ransoms, which consisted ofmonetary means and remained external to the redeemer himself (1Pet.3:18–19), Jesus substituted his own life for the life of thosehe redeemed (antilytron hyper [1Tim. 2:6]). God still did notpay ransom to anyone, but rather caused it by his own power.
TheOT notion that redemption points to God’s involvement in thepresent, allowing for a historical experience of salvation, fills theNT conception as well. This is seen most clearly in Paul’stheological ethics. The new ownership accomplished by Jesus’redemption enables a new kind of life to be lived in freedom from theslavery of sin (1Cor. 6:20; Gal. 5:1). More than just a matterof ethics, it follows Jesus’ emphasis of an “already butnot yet” experience of God’s presence. Redemption isevidenced by the Spirit’s presence (Rom. 8:1–17).
Althoughredemption is present, the fullness of it still awaits the future(Rom. 8:18–23), when the redeemer will fill all in all (1Cor.15:28; Col. 1:19–20). Contrary to Hellenistic conceptions ofredemption, which expect redemption from the body, Paul expectsredemption of the body. God’s eschatological redemption isuniversal; it restores the relationship between creation and theCreator (Col. 1:21–23; Eph. 1:7–10).
The idea of redemption was well known in antiquity. More thana simple notion of deliverance, redemption spoke as much of the graceof the redeemer as of the deliverance of the redeemed. Classicaltexts use the Greek word apolytrōsis(“redemption”) to articulate the ransom payment given torelease a slave, a captive of war, or someone sentenced to death. Thegroup of words based on the Greek term lytron(“ransom”) conveys the idea of payment for release. Thecorresponding Hebrew word padahis a commercial term rooted in the idea of the transfer of ownership.
OldTestament
Theexperience of the exodus gave the idea of redemption religioussignificance. The commemoration of this redemptive event included thededication of the firstborn to Yahweh (Exod. 13:12–13).Moreover, Israel itself, God’s own firstborn (Exod. 4:22), wasredeemed by Yahweh—language that Isaiah later picked up todescribe Abraham (Isa. 29:22). As the theme of redemption continuedto broaden, God’s redemption came to include deliverance fromall Israel’s troubles (Ps. 25:22). Redemption included thewhole of the human situation, not just the eternal destiny (or thenew age to come).
AnotherHebrew term, ga’al,generally relates to the kinsman-redeemer. In the case of a personwho had sold property due to poverty or even gone into slavery to paya debt, a kinsman could become a redeemer by buying back the property(Lev. 25:25–28) and/or purchasing freedom from slavery(25:47–49). The book of Ruth describes this, detailing therelationship between the impoverished Ruth and Boaz, thekinsman-redeemer. The prophets and the psalms apply thisunderstanding to how God redeems Israel (Isa. 43:1–3; Ps.19:14; cf. Job 19:25). God, however, does not pay ransom to anyone(Isa. 52:3–4); rather, he causes redemption by his power(45:13).
Theawaited Messiah, promised through the prophets, would become God’sultimate expression of his redemptive love. When the people’scontinued rebellion against God finally broke the Mosaic covenant,God’s judgment sent them into captivity and exile in Babylon.Now, without place and identity, their only hope for a future was ifGod would ransom his people and restore his covenant with them. Thislonging for God’s redemption grew during the exile. As thepersecutions increased further during the so-called intertestamentalperiod (an approximately four-hundred-year period between the OT andthe NT), the earlier prophetic promises became a full-blown messianichope. God will send the Messiah as redeemer to ransom his people fromGreek and Roman oppression.
NewTestament
TheNT champions the theme of redemption (see Luke 4:18–19). WhenJesus came, teaching that he would redeem his people from the slaveryof sin (John 8:34–36), he spoke of himself as a ransom for many(Matt. 20:28// Mark 10:45). Paul’s theology of the crossaccentuated the same connection between sin, slavery, and Jesus’ransom. He saw people as sold into slavery under sin (Rom. 6:17;7:14) and redeemed by Jesus’ sacrifice (3:24). The Christianidea of ransom followedthe accepted contemporary idea that people who are sentenced to death(Rom. 6:23) can gain their life back if a redeemer buys it with aransom (Col. 1:13–14). The predominance of apolytrōsis inthe NT, compared to common Greek literature of that period,underscores its significance for early Christian conceptualization.
Withoutreflecting on to whom the ransom should be paid, which was made anissue by later theologians and philosophers, the NT authors highlightJesus’ blood as the ransom payment (e.g., Eph. 1:7; Heb. 9:12;cf. Rev. 5:9). The emphases of the NT remain on the need oftheredeemed, the grace of the redeemer, and the effects of theredemption. Christ’s ransom transfers the redeemed from onesphere of influence to another, or rather, from one owner to another.Incomparable to commonly known worldly ransoms, which consisted ofmonetary means and remained external to the redeemer himself (1Pet.3:18–19), Jesus substituted his own life for the life of thosehe redeemed (antilytron hyper [1Tim. 2:6]). God still did notpay ransom to anyone, but rather caused it by his own power.
TheOT notion that redemption points to God’s involvement in thepresent, allowing for a historical experience of salvation, fills theNT conception as well. This is seen most clearly in Paul’stheological ethics. The new ownership accomplished by Jesus’redemption enables a new kind of life to be lived in freedom from theslavery of sin (1Cor. 6:20; Gal. 5:1). More than just a matterof ethics, it follows Jesus’ emphasis of an “already butnot yet” experience of God’s presence. Redemption isevidenced by the Spirit’s presence (Rom. 8:1–17).
Althoughredemption is present, the fullness of it still awaits the future(Rom. 8:18–23), when the redeemer will fill all in all (1Cor.15:28; Col. 1:19–20). Contrary to Hellenistic conceptions ofredemption, which expect redemption from the body, Paul expectsredemption of the body. God’s eschatological redemption isuniversal; it restores the relationship between creation and theCreator (Col. 1:21–23; Eph. 1:7–10).
There are few subjects more prominent in the Bible than sin;hardly a page can be found where sin is not mentioned, described, orportrayed. As the survey that follows demonstrates, sin is one of thedriving forces of the entire Bible.
Sinin the Bible
OldTestament.Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’scommandment to the contrary (2:16–17), Eve ate from the tree ofthe knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. WhenAdam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete.They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaveswere inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with theirattempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent,Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).
Inthe midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways thatsin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised toput hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of thewoman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blowupon the offspring of the woman, the offspring ofthe womanwould defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequatecovering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implicationis that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adamand Eve, covering their sin.
InGen. 4–11 the disastrous effects of sin and death are on fulldisplay. Not even the cataclysmic judgment of the flood was able toeradicate the wickedness of the human heart (6:5; 8:21). Humansgathered in rebellion at the tower of Babel in an effort to make aname for themselves and thwart God’s intention for them toscatter across the earth (11:1–9).
Inone sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holyGod satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationshipwith human beings without compromising his justice? The short answeris: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), whoeventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemedthem from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought themto Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated onobedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant wasthe sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided asa means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrificesmade for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year toatone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement thehigh priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies andsprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took asecond goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people ofIsrael, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them onthe head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness....The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barrenregion; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev.16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinfulpeople, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.
Despitethese provisions, Israel repeatedly and persistently broke itscovenant with God. Even at the highest points of prosperity under thereign of David and his son Solomon, sin plagued God’s people,including the kings themselves. David committed adultery and murder(2Sam. 11:1–27). Solomon had hundreds of foreign wivesand concubines, who turned his heart away from Yahweh to other gods(1Kings 11:1–8). Once the nation split into two (Israeland Judah), sin and its consequences accelerated. Idolatry becamerampant. The result was exile from the land (Israel in 722 BC, Judahin 586 BC). But God refused to give up on his people. He promised toraise up a servant who would suffer for the sins of his people as aguilt offering (Isa. 52:13–53:12).
AfterGod’s people returned from exile, hopes remained high that thegreat prophetic promises, including the final remission of sins, wereat hand. But disillusionment quickly set in as the returnees remainedunder foreign oppression, the rebuilt temple was but a shell ofSolomon’s, and a Davidic king was nowhere to be found. Beforelong, God’s people were back to their old ways, turning awayfrom him. Even the priests, who were charged with the administrationof the sacrificial system dealing with the sin of the people, failedto properly carry out their duties (Mal. 1:6–2:9).
NewTestament.During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longingfor God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last,when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it wasrevealed that he would “save his people from their sins”(Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, Johnthe Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism ofrepentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereasboth Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to bethe obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation(Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13;Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also theSuffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45;cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrathof God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. Withhis justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify allwho are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). Whatneither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, JesusChrist did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).
Afterhis resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers beganproclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus didand calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one ofyou, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins”(Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness,they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned againstthem (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believerscontinue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal.5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23).The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the newheaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse(Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).
Aseven this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesisto Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’splot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative;it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved inorder for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.
Definitionand Terminology
Definitionof sin. Althoughno definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of theconcept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conformto God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action,orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered thatGod’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character,so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather isa personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited toactions. Desires (Exod. 20:17; Matt. 5:27–30), emotions (Gen.4:6–7; Matt. 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature ashuman beings (Ps. 51:5; Eph. 2:1–3) can be sinful as well.
Terminology.TheBible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin. Neatly classifying themis not easy, as there is significant overlap in the meaning and useof the various terms. Nonetheless, many of the terms fit in one ofthe following four categories.
1.Personal. Sin is an act of rebellion against God as the creator andruler of the universe. Rather than recognizing God’sself-revelation in nature and expressing gratitude, humankindfoolishly worships the creation rather than the Creator (Rom.1:19–23). The abundant love, grace, and mercy that God shows tohumans make their rebellion all the more stunning (Isa. 1:2–31).Another way of expressing the personal nature of sin is ungodlinessor impiety, which refers to lack of devotion to God (Ps. 35:16; Isa.9:17; 1Pet. 4:18).
2.Legal. A variety of words portray sin in terms drawn from thelawcourts. Words such as “transgression” and “trespass”picture sin as the violation of a specific command of God or thecrossing of a boundary that God has established (Num. 14:41–42;Rom. 4:7, 15). When individuals do things that are contrary to God’slaw, they are deemed unrighteous or unjust (Isa. 10:1; Matt. 5:45;Rom. 3:5). Breaking the covenant with God is described as violatinghis statutes and disobeying his laws (Isa. 24:5). The result isguilt, an objective legal status that is present whenever God’slaw is violated regardless of whether the individual subjectivelyfeels guilt.
3.Moral. In the most basic sense, sin is evil, the opposite of what isgood. Therefore, God’s people are to hate evil and love what isgood (Amos 5:14–15; Rom. 12:9). Similarly, Scripture contraststhe upright and the wicked (Prov. 11:11; 12:6; 14:11). One could alsoinclude here the term “iniquity,” which is used to speakof perversity or crookedness (Pss. 51:2; 78:38; Isa. 59:2). Frequentmention is also made of sexual immorality as an especially grievousdeparture from God’s ways (Num. 25:1; Rom. 1:26–27;1Cor. 5:1–11).
4.Cultic. In order for a person to approach a holy God, that individualhad to be in a state of purity before him. While a person couldbecome impure without necessarily sinning (e.g., a menstruating womanwas impure but not sinful), in some cases the term “impurity”clearly refers to a sinful state (Lev. 20:21; Isa. 1:25; Ezek.24:13). The same is true of the term “unclean.” Althoughit is frequently used in Leviticus to speak of ritual purity, inother places it clearly refers to sinful actions or states (Ps. 51:7;Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:5; 64:6).
Metaphors
Inaddition to specific terms used for “sin,” the Bible usesseveral metaphors or images to describe it. The following four areamong the more prominent.
Missingthe mark.In both Hebrew and Greek, two of the most common words for “sin”have the sense of missing the mark. But this does not mean that sinis reduced to a mistake or an oversight. The point is not that aperson simply misses the mark of what God requires; instead, it isthat he or she is aiming for the wrong target altogether (Exod. 34:9;Deut. 9:18). Regardless of whether missing the mark is intentional ornot, the individual is still responsible (Lev. 4:2–31; Num.15:30).
Departingfrom the way.Sin as departing from God’s way is especially prominent in thewisdom literature. Contrasts are drawn between the way of therighteous and the way of the wicked (Ps. 1:1, 6; Prov. 4:11–19).Wisdom is pictured as a woman who summons people to walk in her ways,but fools ignore her and depart from her ways (Prov. 9:1–18).Those who do not walk in God’s ways are eventually destroyed bytheir own wickedness (Prov. 11:5; 12:26; 13:15).
Adultery.Since God’s relationship with his people is described as amarriage (Isa. 62:4–5; Ezek. 16:8–14; Eph. 5:25–32),it is not surprising that the Bible describes their unfaithfulness asadultery. The prophet Hosea’s marriage to an adulterous womanvividly portrays Israel’s unfaithfulness to Yahweh (Hos. 1–3).When the Israelites chase after other gods, Yahweh accuses them ofspiritual adultery in extremely graphic terms (Ezek. 16:15–52).When Christians join themselves to a prostitute or participate inidolatry, they too are engaged in spiritual adultery (1Cor.6:12–20; 10:1–22).
Slavery.Sin is portrayed as a power that enslaves. The prophets make it clearthat Israel’s bondage to foreign powers is in fact a picture ofits far greater enslavement to sin (Isa. 42:8; 43:4–7;49:1–12). Paul makes a similar point when he refers to thosewho do not know Christ as slaves to sin, unable to do anything thatpleases God (Rom. 6:1–23; 8:5–8). Sin is a cosmic powerthat is capable of using even the law to entrap people in its snare(Rom. 7:7–25).
Scopeand Consequences
Sindoes not travel alone; it brings a large collection of baggage alongwith it. Here we briefly examine its scope and consequences.
Scope.The stain of sin extends to every part of the created order. As aresult of Adam’s sin, the ground was cursed to resist humanefforts to cultivate it, producing thorns and thistles (Gen.3:17–18). The promised land is described as groaning under theweight of Israel’s sin and in need of Sabbath rest (2Chron.36:21; Jer. 12:4); Paul applies the same language to all creation aswell (Rom. 8:19–22).
Sinaffects every aspect of the individual: mind, heart, will, emotions,motives, actions, and nature (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Jer. 17:9; Rom.3:9–18). Sometimes this reality is referred to as “totaldepravity.” This phrase means not that people are as sinful asthey could be but rather that every aspect of their lives is taintedby sin. As a descendant of Adam, every person enters the world as asinner who then sins (Rom. 5:12–21). Sin also pollutes societalstructures, corrupting culture, governments, nations, and economicmarkets, to name but a few.
Consequences.Since the two greatest commandments are to love God and to love one’sneighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:34–40), it makes sense that sinhas consequences on both the vertical and the horizontal level.Vertically, sin results in both physical and spiritual death (Gen.2:16–17; Rom. 5:12–14). It renders humanity guilty inGod’s court of law, turns us into God’s enemies, andsubjects us to God’s righteous wrath (Rom. 1:18; 3:19–20;5:6–11). On the horizontal level, sin causes conflict betweenindividuals and harms relationships of every kind. It breedsmistrust, jealousy, and selfishness that infect even the closestrelationships.
Conclusion
Nosubject is more unpleasant than sin. But a proper understanding ofsin is essential for understanding the gospel of Jesus Christ. As thePuritan Thomas Watson put it, “Until sin be bitter, Christ willnot be sweet.”
Those who offer themselves freely and willingly, withoutcompulsion or consideration of value in return, to perform a task,make a vow, or serve another. In the OT, volunteers usually serve God(Deut. 23:23; 2Chron. 17:16; Ps. 110:3), Israel (Ezra 7:13;Neh. 11:2), or a leader in Israel (Judg. 5:2, 9; 1Chron.28:21). God himself is the ultimate volunteer, as he freely givesplace, purpose, and a partner to Adam (Gen. 2:15–22);unilaterally covenants with Abram to give him descendants, blessing,and land (Gen. 12:2–3; 15:17–21); liberates Israel frombondage in Egypt (Exod. 6:6–8; Deut. 20:1; Josh. 24:17; Ps.81:10); and remains faithful to Israel despite its repeated failures(Pss. 68:35; 106:44–46).
Inthe NT, God is also the sender of Jesus (Matt. 10:40; Mark 9:37; Luke4:18–21; John 4:34; 5:24, 30, 36–37), who heals of hisown volition (Luke 5:13), gives rest to the weary (Matt. 11:28), andlays down his life of his own accord for our redemption (Mark 10:45;John 10:18; Gal. 3:13–14; Eph. 5:2; Titus 2:14; 1Pet.1:18–19). With Jesus as the standard, the concept of willinglygiving of oneself and one’s possessions runs throughout the NT(Eph. 5:1–2). Christians are called to love and serve oneanother in spiritual and practical ways (Acts 2:44–45; Rom.12:9–21; 1Thess. 5:15–18; Philem. 14). They arealso to love their enemies and pray for their persecutors (Matt.5:44; Luke 6:27, 35). Those who wish to lead must first volunteerthemselves as servants to others (Matt. 20:27; Mark 9:35; Luke22:26). Elders are to shepherd voluntarily (1Pet. 5:2). Paul,who urges Christians to offer their bodies as living sacrifices (Rom.12:1), is himself a model of volunteerism and self-sacrifice (Acts20:34–35; 21:13; 1Cor. 9:19–23; 2Cor. 4:5;11:23–27).
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1. Parable of the Two Ships
Illustration
The first ship was a mighty man of war carrying its cargo of manpower and ammunition. It was a thrilling sight to see and a devastating power. On occasion the ship moved with mighty purpose and more often flexed its guns in peacetime pageantry. The second ship was a fishing boat manned by a few hands and eternally engaged in the procuring of food for hungry men.
"Wouldn't you like to be a great battleship," spoke the trawling boat to its mother fishing craft. "Then all the other boats would make way for your coming."
"No," said the fishing craft. "The battleship depends more on me than I depend on it. That great ship is especially powerful in protecting life or destroying it in time of war and it depends on which side you are on as to how you value its activity. On the other hand my work is to feed life and make happy all whom I serve every day. My work is always valuable and always good. Importance in life depends on your standard of values."
Mankind may find true happiness in the humblest tasks when the proper set of Christian values is used. We all need to be important and are important in the sight of God. Each one should be bringing happiness to others and finding joy within through the outreach of helpfulness. Service is its own declaration of faith in man and in God.
2. Sturdy Dreamers
Illustration
Larry Powell
Foe three weeksthe minister announced in the church newsletter that a called meeting of the Administrative Board would be held to consider enlarging the church kitchen. For three weeks, the same announcement appeared in the Sunday worship bulletin and was repeated verbally from the pulpit. On the appointed date, the board met, deliberated the details, and voted to move ahead with the kitchen project. Construction was soon under way. One morning, a member of the board happened by the church and was curious to know what all the commotion was about in the kitchen. It was explained that the kitchen was being enlarged. The board member was irate. "Who authorized that?" he demanded. He was informed that the Adminsitrative Board had met and unanimously approved the project. "Why didn’t I know anything about the meeting?" he snapped hatefully. That was a good question, considering he had been in church each Sunday the announcement was made and the newsletter had carried the same information into his home for three successive weeks. Why do people not pay attention? Are they (we) preoccupied, disinterested, along for a free ride, or just simply contrary? For whatever reason, it is both disconcerting and annoying to be ignored repeatedly.
Jesus and his disciples were on their way to Jerusalem and, in what was actually his third announcement of his approaching death, Jesus said: "Behold, we are going up to Jerusalem; and the Son of man will be delivered to the chief priests and the scribes, and they will condemn him to death, and deliver him to the Gentiles; and they will mock him, and spit upon him, and scourge him, and kill him; and after three days he will rise" (10:33-34). James and John, the sons of Zebedee, had not heard a word of it! Immediately, their ambitions, which doubtless they had been stroking while Jesus had been speaking, came to the front. En route to a human sacrifice, they dared to ask for places of honor in the kingdom (10:37). They were indeed, as the writer of the hymn, "Are Ye Able?" describes them - sturdy dreamers.
Jesus taught that to seek places of honor is to be off on the wrong trail; service is the objective. "The Son of man also came not to be served but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many" (10:45).
3. Ego
Illustration
G. Curtis Jones
George Bernard Shaw was once asked in what generation he would have preferred to live. The witty Irishman replied: "The age of Napoleon, because then there was only one man who thought he was Napoleon."
4. Worship Services that Seek to Accommodate Rather than Dictate
Illustration
Timothy Wright
Timothy Wright, who is associate pastor at the Community Church of Joy (Lutheran) in Phoenix, Arizona, tells of "standing in the back of our sanctuary when a tall, lanky young man approached me. He was visibly shaking and appeared troubled. I anticipated an emergency counseling situation. Instead, he inquired about weddings. He asked if he could be married in our church, even though he was not a member. We talked details for a few moments, and then he said, 'Please forgive my shaking. I've never been in a church before, and I'm a little nervous.'"
Wright goes on to say: "Seekers often enter our churches feeling the same way. They do not know what to expect. They are apprehensive, if not actually frightened. I am unsure what they think will happen to them, but whatever it is, they think it could be awful. Visitor-oriented congregations take those feelings seriously and design services that put guests at ease. An informal setting encourages visitors to settle in and relax. An upbeat, celebratory climate, friendly people and enthusiastic music help guests forget their fears."
5. Having a Life Purpose
Illustration
In his book, "Man's Search for Meaning," Austrian psychiatrist Dr. Viktor Frankl documents the profound power that a life purpose exerts over an individual under even the worst of circ*mstances. Frankl, who survived the Nazi concentration camps, described how prisoners who felt they had nothing to live for succumbed, while those who perceived themselves as having a mission to complete, struggled to survive. Deprived of all external supports that might give life meaning, these survivors came to realize that, in Frankl's words, "It did not really matter what we expected of life, but rather what life expected from us." Their sense of an inner purpose pulled them through the most horrible physical and emotional experiences so that they might make their unique contribution to the world.
Everyone has a purpose in life beyond one's immediate interests and gratifications, though that purpose frequently goes undiscovered. Many people devote their entire lives to the pursuit of greater ease and pleasure. Those who had not found the "why" that gives meaning to existence may achieve material success, yet the real goodness of life will elude them. The true meaning of life lies in sharing our particular qualities of greatness with others.
6. Decaffeinated Christianity
Illustration
Bill Bouknight
Most Christians prefer what Bishop Michael Marshall has called "decaffeinated Christianity," the kind of religion that won't keep you awake a night. This kind of religion costs little, won't require you to get involved in controversy or other people's troubles, and will surround you with comfort. But by the way, this kind of religion is counterfeit.
7. The Weight of the Cross
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
An American businessman traveled to Europe to see the famous Oberammergau Passion Play? Following the performance the businessman had the opportunity to meet and talk with Anton Lang who portrayed Christ in the play. Seeing the cross that was used in the play, the businessman wanted his wife to take his picture holding it. He attempted to lift the cross to his shoulder. To his surprise he could hardly budge it from the floor.
He said to Mr. Lang, "I don't understand. I figured the cross would be hollow. Why do you carry such a heavy cross?" Mr. Lang's reply explains why this play draws people from allover the world to that little Bavarian village. He said, "If I did not feel the weight of His cross, I could not play the part."
And neither can we.
8. The Drum Major Instinct
Illustration
Dr. Martin Luther King
The following words were part of a sermon given by Dr. King at the Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta, Georgia, on February 4, 1968.
I know a man—and I just want to talk about him a minute, and maybe you will discover who I'm talking about as I go down the way (Yeah) because he was a great one. And he just went about serving. He was born in an obscure village, (Yes, sir) the child of a poor peasant woman. And then he grew up in still another obscure village, where he worked as a carpenter until he was thirty years old. (Amen) Then for three years, he just got on his feet, and he was an itinerant preacher. And he went about doing some things. He didn't have much. He never wrote a book. He never held an office. He never had a family. (Yes) He never owned a house. He never went to college. He never visited a big city. He never went two hundred miles from where he was born. He did none of the usual things that the world would associate with greatness. He had no credentials but himself.
He was only thirty-three when the tide of public opinion turned against him. They called him a rabble-rouser. They called him a troublemaker. They said he was an agitator. (Glory to God) He practiced civil disobedience; he broke injunctions. And so he was turned over to his enemies and went through the mockery of a trial. And the irony of it all is that his friends turned him over to them. (Amen) One of his closest friends denied him. Another of his friends turned him over to his enemies. And while he was dying, the people who killed him gambled for his clothing, the only possession that he had in the world. (Lord help him) When he was dead he was buried in a borrowed tomb, through the pity of a friend.
Nineteen centuries have come and gone and today he stands as the most influential figure that ever entered human history. All of the armies that ever marched, all the navies that ever sailed, all the parliaments that ever sat, and all the kings that ever reigned put together (Yes) have not affected the life of man on this earth (Amen) as much as that one solitary life. His name may be a familiar one. (Jesus) But today I can hear them talking about him. Every now and then somebody says, "He's King of Kings." (Yes) And again I can hear somebody saying, "He's Lord of Lords." Somewhere else I can hear somebody saying, "In Christ there is no East nor West." (Yes) And then they go on and talk about, "In Him there's no North and South, but one great Fellowship of Love throughout the whole wide world." He didn't have anything. (Amen) He just went around serving and doing good.
This morning, you can be on his right hand and his left hand if you serve. (Amen) It's the only way in.
9. Looking for an EZ Pass
Illustration
David Beckett
On many of our nation's toll roads, rather than stopping at a toll-booth to toss some change in a hopper, you can now purchase a transponder, sometimes called an EZ-Pass, and zip through in the left lanes without even slowing down to the acceptable speed limit. Instead of cash, tickets and paper receipts, it's a microchip tag placed on your windshield containing pertinent data which eases your way. Your data is quickly read by a tollbooth electronic antenna as your car zooms on through. It automatically deducts your appropriate toll tax. This computerized collection system then sends a monthly statement to your home with tallies of times and places for your records. EZ-Pass is like a debit card for your car, only quicker. No more stopping at the tollgate, the narrow gate.
Jesus says, I am the narrow gate. There's no quick way in. There's no shortcut. If he wasn't the Christ himself already, he'd be the perfect patron saint of tollgates.
Sometimes it seems that everybody wants the easy way to the front of the line, a quick way to glory and fast track to success. Including James and John, the brothers Zebedee, who want front-row seats numbering two and three. Put yourself in their shoes for a moment and see if you can identify with their self-centeredness. These guys gave up everything to follow Jesus. They followed Jesus when nobody knew him. They followed Jesus before his miracles. Now that he was popular, James and John were feeling the swell of fame. After all, they were Jesus' best friends, his disciples! So we can understand why two of them came to Jesus with their request.
10. I Hate To Leave This Church
Illustration
William G. Carter
A Methodist pastor once wrote about power and politics in his denomination. Methodist preachers, he notes, are under the care of a bishop. Bishops, in turn, are Methodist preachers who are elected by fellow Methodist preachers after an extensive campaign for the office in which the candidate tries not to be caught campaigning. As he observes, It is a long-standing Methodist tradition that bishops must not appear to have sought their office and, once elected, the new bishop must make a public declaration that "I didn't seek this office and I didn't want it but, once the Lord calls" ... Methodist preachers take all of this with a grain of salt, the same way Baptist congregations have learned to be somewhat skeptical when one of their preachers moves on to a better church claiming, "I hate to leave this church and I would rather stay here, but the Lord calls." Baptists note that the Lord rarely calls someone out of one church into another church unless that church has a higher salary. Methodists have likewise noted that there have been few preachers who, once they are elected bishop, turn the job down.
"Teacher, we want you to put us on your right and on your left. But keep it quiet. Don't make it too obvious. Others may become offended that we asked first." By telling us this story, Mark knows what you and I know: we are prone to the same desire for privilege and protected status. We want a Jesus who will give us what we want, a Lord who can shower a little power on us, a Savior who can make us better than we are.
11. What's in It for Me?
Illustration
William G. Carter
A number of years ago, a small book appeared for ministers. Titled The Penguin Principles, it attempted to help naive clergy get a handle on the people of their congregations. Most of the material in the book was written with tongue in cheek, so it has some truth in it. According to the book, the first principle of church life goes like this: "Despite the pious things we say, at any given time, less than five percent of any group in the church is operating with purely Christian motivation. The other 95 percent is asking, 'What's in it for me?'"
12. No Box Seats in the Kingdom
Illustration
William G. Carter
Joel Gregory became the pastor of First Baptist Church of Dallas, an impressive congregation with almost thirty thousand members. It was the crowning achievement of a preacher career. First Baptist Church occupies five city blocks in downtown Dallas. It houses two schools, a college, and a radio station. The church gave him a nice home, memberships in exclusive country clubs, and luxury box seats for Dallas Cowboys football games. They weren't box seats for the kingdom, but in Dallas a box seat for one is as good as a box seat for another.
But something went wrong in Gregory's pastorate. Church leaders wanted more members; thirty thousand weren't enough. People wanted the physical plant to grow; five city blocks wasn't big enough. Most of all, everyone expected Gregory to tag along behind his predecessor, W. A. Criswell, who had served that congregation for 46 years and who, despite his announcements to the contrary, showed no signs of retiring. "There wasn't room for both of us," Joel Gregory said. "The whole zoo of human ambition and power and ego is the fabric of some superchurches." A power struggle began, dividing the church into opposing sides. One day in September 1992, Gregory stunned many Southern Baptists by resigning from that prominent pulpit. There was also a divorce to throw into the mix.
To support himselfhe traveledthrough Fort Worth neighborhoods as a door-to-door salesman sellingfuneral plans. A lot of people saidhe's a failure. Joel Gregory said otherwise. "For the first time in my life, at 46, I waslearning what it means to be a servant," he says. "It gaveme a different view of Christ, and a different view of the real needs of human beings."
A friend of his didn't give up on his calling. He set up Joel to preach at some black congregations. For some reason his preaching caught fire within African-American churches. Then he was back and professor of preaching at Baylor. It was a riches-to rags-to riches story, and all quite humbling.
Jesus said, "Are you able to drink my cup? Are you able to share my baptism? Are you able to walk with me, giving yourself to others in a life of service?" If we dare say yes, we must remember the road of discipleship is uphill all the way, and it leads to the foot of the cross. Whoever would follow Jesus must follow him there. He never promised anything else.
A Baptist news site summarizes his story this way:
A life in three acts:
Act 1 — Normalcy. The pace zips. The protagonist, a boy of modest means, grows up in Fort Worth, Texas. Like millions of Baptist children coming of age in the mid-20th century, his life perches upon three sturdy pillars — home, school and a full-service neighborhood church. Despite the lure of academia, church trumps school, and the boy sets out to become a preacher. He trains at the world’s largest Baptist institutions, studying at Baylor University, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary and Baylor again. Along the way, he learns the ministerial ropes in small churches.
Act 2 — Glory and Cataclysm. Gregory accepts the pastorate of the “seminary church” in Fort Worth. Promoted by the school’s connected-and-charismatic president, millions discover The Voice, an inimitably grand oratorical presence. The still-young pastor preaches in magnificent venues. In just 13 years, he assumes Baptistdom’s most prominent pulpit. Only two years later, he resigns abruptly, later endures divorce and supports himself selling “pre-need funeral plans” door-to-door.
Act 3 — Redemption. Of all the saints in all creation, a prominent African-American pastor becomes Gregory’s best friend. He keeps insisting that Gregory can’t quit. He places Gregory in front of 900 black Baptist pastors. Before you can say, “Resurrection,” Gregory ascends pulpit after pulpit. He’s the most popular white preacher in African-American congregations nationwide. Other Baptists eventually catch the spirit, and by the end of the movie, Gregory returns to Baylor. Oxymoronically, the last great exemplar of 19th-century pulpit oratory invests his final years teaching 21st-century ministers to preach
See:https://baptistnews.com/article/the-rise-and-fall-and-rise-again-of-joel-gregory/#.X0SIa-hKguU
13. Life Together
Illustration
William G. Carter
Richard Foster, who wrote the famousbook Celebration of Disciple,tells about receiving a phone call from a friend. The friend's wife had taken the car, and he wanted to know if Richard could take him on a number of errands. Richard was preparing to teach a college class, but since the man was his friend he reluctantly agreed. As he ran out the door, car keys in hand, he grabbed a book to read along the way. It was a book by Dietrich Bonhoeffer called Life Together.
Foster picked up his friend, and the errands did not go well. There were plenty of stops and starts, traffic was bad, and precious time kept ticking away. Finally they pulled into a parking lot, the friend got out, and Richard stayed behind with his book. He opened it to the bookmark, and read these words: "The second service that one should perform for another in a Christian community is that of active helpfulness. This means, initially, simple assistance in trifling, external matters. There is a multitude of these things wherever people live together. Nobody is too good for the meanest service. One who worries about the loss of time that such petty, outward acts of helpfulness entail is usually taking the importance of his own career too solemnly."
14. Jimmy Carter's Effectiveness
Illustration
Katherine fa*gerburg
Talk show host John Calloway interviewed the editor of The Christian Century. Calloway asked James Wall, "What do you think made Jimmy Carter so effective as an international negotiator?" Wall replied, "Carter has the prestige and experience of the presidency without the political baggage. Furthermore, he is able to draw on his personal, deeply held religious belief that in talking with another person, one must be sensitive to the other's perspective."
Calloway responded, "You are really saying that it is the one without power who really has power."
That is closer to what Christ taught, that power is sometimes manifested in weakness, in giving oneself to others. Authentic greatness is redefined to mean serving instead of being served, using the power of love rather than seeking power and control. In the kingdom of God, we do not attain prominence by getting our bids in first, or by elbowing our way to the front. Prominence comes as we serve others with humility.
15. Service Keeps Us Alive
Illustration
Unamuno, the Spanish philosopher, tells about the Roman aqueduct at Segovia, in his native Spain. It was built in 109 A.D. For eighteen hundred years, it carried cool water from the mountains to the hot and thirsty city. Nearly sixty generations of men drank from its flow. Then came another generation, a recent one, who said, "This aqueduct is so great a marvel that it ought to be preserved for our children, as a museum piece. We shall relieve it of its centuries-long labor."
They did; they laid modern iron pipes. They gave the ancient bricks and mortar a reverent rest. And what happened to the aqueduct? It beganto fall apart. The sun beating on the dry mortar caused it to crumble. The bricks and stone sagged and threatened to fall. What ages of service could not destroy idleness quickly threatened disintegrated. A campaign was started and it was saved.
Our lives are not fruitfulwithout service to one another. I think James and John knew better than to ask Jesus for military and leadership positions within his coming politicalkingdom but they couldn't help themselves. If they fully understood the kind of Kingdom Jesus was suggesting they never would have made that request. We have the advantage of hindsight, learning from their lessons. Aqueducts crumble when put out of service. Christians too.
16. Service
Illustration
James W. Moore
Have you heard the beautiful children's story about the three trees? The trees were talking in the forest one day about their dreams for the future. The first tree said it would like to be made into a cradle, so that it might go on living as a support for the fragile life of a tiny new baby. The second tree wanted to be made into a big ship, so that it might go on living, carrying important cargo and influential people to exotic new lands. The third tree longed to stay right where it was, existing only as a tree, but growing ever taller, and pointing ever higher, to remind everyone that there is a God in heaven who loves them. Those were their dreams: One wanted to be a cradle, one wanted to be a mighty ship, and one wanted to be a tall tree, pointing people toward God.
But then one day the woodcutters came and chopped down the three trees...and destroyed their dreams. The first tree was not made into a cradle, but into a simple feeding trough, a manger for animals. But the manger was sold to a family in Bethlehem, and on the night Jesus was born, that simple feed box became the cradle for the Christ Child.
The second tree was built into a boat, but not the kind it had dreamed of not a mighty ocean-going vessel but a tiny inexpensive fishing boat. A man named Simon Peter bought the boat, and on one warm afternoon when the crowds pressed in, Jesus himself climbed aboard that small fishing boats that he might preach good news to the multitudes.
The third tree also was deprived of its dream. It wanted to remain standing tall and pointing toward God. Instead, it was cut down and shaped into a horrible instrument of torture, a cross. But it was on that very cross that Jesus was crucified, transforming a symbol of cruelty into a powerful reminder of God's eternal love for all the people.
The three trees were humbled, but in the plan of God, they were exalted.
That's the way it works: When we, in humility, give ourselves to God, our Lord can do great things through us and for us greater than we can ever imagine.
17. Everybody Wants to Be Somebody
Illustration
Kenneth L. Carder
Everybody wants to be somebody. Since the dawn of history, human beings have been trying to move up the scale of importance. The clincher used by the serpent to tempt Adam and Eve was "when you eat of [the tree of good and evil], your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil" (Gen. 3:5). Theologian Henri Nouwen says that ever since then, we have been tempted to replace love with power. "The long painful history of the church is the history of people ever and again tempted to choose power over love, control over the cross, being a leader over being led." This is a theme running through the Bible, through human history and through our own psyche.
18. One Positive Thing
Illustration
William Barclay
"There are many negative things that can be said about James and John," writes William Barclay. "They were nakedly ambitious and proud: they wanted, and believed they deserved, places of honor in Jesus' kingdom. They were ignorant and insensitive: their request for places of honor came right after Jesus had told of His coming suffering and death. But there's one positive thing you can say about James and John: they believed in Jesus. Here was a poor, homeless, persecuted carpenter and yet James and John believed Jesus was a king. They believed that He would conquer the power structure of Rome." Even their crude ambition reflected their faith in Christ.
19. Competitive Kids
Illustration
Erskine White
Do we learn from children how not to be so competitive - how to be happy with our own gifts and achievements and not to be so obsessed with what the next person has? Well, consider the plight of poor Charlie Brown (in Peanuts), who is walking with his friends on the way to school one morning. It is "show and tell day," and Lucy is asking Linus if he remembered to bring anything for the class to see.
"Yes, I did," says Linus, as he unfolds some papers. "These are copies I drew of the Dead Sea Scrolls," holding them up for the others to see. "This is a copy of the scroll of Isaiah, chapters 38-40. It was made from 17 pieces of sheepskin and was found in a cave by a Bedouin shepherd boy."
Pulling out another piece of paper, Linus says, "Here I've made a copy of the earliest known fragment ever found. It is a portion of 1 Samuel 23:9-16. I'll try to explain to the class how these manuscripts have influenced modern Biblical scholarship."
Lucy responds, "Very interesting, Linus." Then she turns and says, "Are you bringing something for show and tell, Charlie Brown?" "Well," says a crestfallen Charlie Brown, "I had a little red fire engine here, but I think I'll just forget it."
Don't kid yourself. Even in kindergarten, the kids compete and they feel badly when they don't measure up.
20. Caring Service and Its Impact
Illustration
Roger Dow
A room-service waiter at a Marriott hotel learned that the sister of a guest had just died. The waiter, named Charles, bought a sympathy card, had hotel staff members sign it, and gave it to the distraught guest with a piece of hot apple pie. That guest later wrote to the president of Marriott Hotels, "Mr. Marriott," the letter said, "I'll never meet you. And I don't need to meet you. Because I met Charles. I know what you stand for. ... I want to assure you that as long as I live, I will stay at your hotels. And I will tell my friends to stay at your hotels."
21. Maintenance or Mission
Illustration
Brian Stoffregen
Churches need to be mission oriented but often fall intomaintenance behavior and many times they don't know they've slippedfrom mission into maintenance. Let's look at the following to gauge how much mission vs. maintenance exist in our congregation:
1. In measuring the effectiveness, the maintenance congregation asks, "How many pastoral visits are being made? The mission congregation asks, "How many disciples are being made?"
2. When contemplating some form of change, the maintenance congregation says, "If this proves upsetting to any of our members, we won't do it." The mission congregation says, "If this will help us reach someone on the outside, we will take the risk and do it."
3. When thinking about change, the majority of members in a maintenance congregation ask, "How will this affect me?" The majority of members in the mission congregation ask, "Will this increase our ability to reach those outside?"
4. When thinking of its vision for ministry, the maintenance congregation says, "We have to be faithful to our past." The mission congregation says, "We have to be faithful to our future."
5. The pastor in the maintenance congregation says to the newcomer, "I'd like to introduce you to some of our members." In the mission congregation the members say, "We'd like to introduce you to our pastor."
6. When confronted with a legitimate pastoral concern, the pastor in the maintenance congregation asks, "How can I meet this need?" The pastor in the mission congregation asks, "How can this need be met?"
7. The maintenance congregation seeks to avoid conflict at any cost (but rarely succeeds). The mission congregation understands that conflict is the price of progress, and is willing to pay the price. It understands that it cannot take everyone with it. This causes some grief, but it does not keep it from doing what needs to be done.
8. The leadership style in the maintenance congregation is primarily managerial, where leaders try to keep everything in order and running smoothly. The leadership style in a mission congregation is primarily transformational, casting a vision of what can be, and marching off the map in order to bring the vision into reality.
9. The maintenance congregation is concerned with their congregation, its organizations and structure, its constitutions and committees. The mission congregation is concerned with the culture, with understanding how secular people think and what makes them tick. It tries to determine their needs and their points of accessibility to the Gospel.
10. When thinking about growth, the maintenance congregations asks, "How many Lutherans live within a twenty-minute drive of this church?" The mission congregation asks, "How many unchurched people live within a twenty-minute drive of this church?"
11. The maintenance congregation looks at the community and asks, "How can we get these people to support our congregation?" The mission congregation asks, "How can the Church support these people?"
12. The maintenance congregation thinks about how to save their congregation. The mission congregation thinks about how to reach the world.
22. The Three Poison Pills of Position, Prestige, and Power - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
During the American Revolution a man in civilian clothes rode past a group of soldiers repairing a small defensive barrier. Their leader was shouting instructions, but making no attempt to help them. Asked why by the rider, he retorted with great dignity, "Sir, I am a corporal!" The stranger apologized, dismounted, and proceeded to help the exhausted soldiers. The job done, he turned to the corporal and said, "Corporal, next time you have a job like this and not enough men to do it, go to your commander-in-chief, and I will come and help you again." With that George Washington got back on horse and rode off.
Where did Washington learn such leadership skills? I have no doubt he learned them here. In these words of Jesus: Whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant. The young corporal had these words modeled to him from the man at the top. The disciples, likewise, receive from their leader a picture of servant hood.
And it is high time they start imitating their leader. It is now five days before Jesus' crucifixion. Four days before his betrayal and trial. One day before the clearing of the temple. A few hours before the Triumphal Entry. If the Disciples are going to start appropriating Jesus' teachings in their life it ought to be now. But it doesn't happen. Moments before the most crucial events in their life they are a bickering, petty, bad-tempered quarrelsome lot. We need to learn from this not-so-flattering moment in the life of the disciples.
How is it that critical moments can be so close at hand and we are off wondering what's in it for me? It has to do with the three poison pills of:
1. Position
2. Prestige
3. And Power
23. "Others"
Illustration
King Duncan
Every holiday season we begin to see people in uniforms in shopping malls ringing bells collecting donations for the poor. They are doing the work of the Salvation Army.
In 1878, when the Salvation Army was really beginning to make its mark, men and women from all over the world began to enlist. A man who had once dreamed of becoming a bishop in another denomination crossed the Atlantic from America to England to enlist in the Salvation Army instead. His name was Samuel Brengle. Brengle left a fine pastorate to join William Booth's Army. At first General Booth accepted his services reluctantly and grudgingly. Booth said to Brengle, "You've been your own boss too long." So in order to instill humility in Brengle, he made him work by cleaning the boots of other trainees.
Discouraged, Brengle said to himself, "Have I followed my own fancy across the Atlantic in order to black boots?" Then, as in a vision, he saw Jesus bending over the feet of rough, uneducated fishermen. "Lord," he whispered, "you washed their feet; I will black their shoes."
Samuel Brengle went on to establish the Salvation Army in America. At the time of his death, the Salvation Army was thriving in both the United States and in Canada. Just before his death Brengle sent out a short memo to all of his top leaders. This memo had one single word written on it: "Others."
24. Pursuing Dreams
Illustration
King Duncan
There is a wonderful story about the King and Queen of Sweden who were attending the 1980 Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid, New York. Trying to get into an ice hockey game featuring the Swedish team, they were stopped by the ticket taker because their tickets were for another game on another day. The King said that the correct tickets were in his car and he asked that they be allowed in without the correct tickets: “Could you make an exception for us, please?” he said. “You see, I’m the King of Sweden.”
The ticket taker responded, “Sure you are, and I suppose this is the Queen.”
The King and Queen of Sweden went back to their car to get the correct tickets . . . only to see it being towed away.
I guess it is a little different being the King and Queen of Sweden and being, say, the Queen of England. The job obviously comes with fewer perks.
How about your job? Are you at the place you had hoped to be at this stage of your life? We spend our whole lives pursuing dreams and goals. The aim is to go higher, to become greater. To have more perks, as it were. That is the mark of success. It even affects our families. We want our children to become doctors and lawyers and engineers. Nobody tries to persuade their children to become servants. What?! A servant? But sometimes God’s way confuses man’s wisdom.
25. A Lifetime to Prepare
Illustration
King Duncan
There is an old legend about a man who had a rather stupid servant. The master often got exasperated with his servant. One day in a fit of frustration he said to the servant, "You've got to be the stupidest man I've ever met. Look, I want you to take this staff and carry it with you. And if you ever meet a man stupider than you are, give him the staff." So the servant carried the staff. Often out in the marketplace he'd meet some pretty stupid people. But he was never sure they were worse off than he. Years passed with the servant carrying his staff. Then one day, he came back to the castle and was ushered into the bedroom of his master. His master was quite sick.
In the course of their conversation, the master said, "I'm going on a long journey." The servant said, "When do you plan to be back?" The master said, "This is a journey from which I'll not return." The servant said, "Sir, have you made all the necessary preparations?" The master said, "No, I have not." The servant said, "Could you have made preparations?" The master said, "Yes, I guess I've had my life to make them, but I've been busy about other things." The servant said "Master, you're going on a journey from which you'll never return, you could've prepared for it, and you just didn't?" The master said, "Yes, I guess that's right." The servant took the staff he'd carried so long and said, "Master take this with you. At last I've met a man more stupid than myself."
Could that be us? Could we be that foolish? I hope not. I surely hope not. Victory belongs to those who are prepared. Preparation is an essential characteristic of character. The most important preparation we can make is for eternity.
26. SERVANT, SERVITOR
Illustration
Stephen Stewart
Exodus 12:45 - "No sojourner or hired servant may eat of it."
2 Kings 4:43 - "But his servant said, ‘How am I to set this before a hundred men?’ ..."
A servant is a person of either sex who is in the service of another person, and the term does not necessarily mean that this servant is a domestic, in the sense that we use it today. In our usage, a servant is one who works for pay and in so doing attends to the physical needs, in one way or another, of the person who has employed him.
But this was not necessarily the designation in the ancient world. Rather, that concept would be more akin to "slave," which implies a forced labor, but is more in keeping with the type of work done by today’s servants. Rather, the ancient servant means merely someone who was in service to another, and this type of service was often of a high order. In that sense, then, any person under the king was a servant. For example, we have Eliezer, whose position in the household of Abraham compared with that of the prime niinister, hardly a menial position!
However, the servant had certain obligations, whatever his status or rank - he was under obligation to obey and to work for the benefit of his master, which is still not too far away from the idea of the hired workman of today. In return for his obedience and care, he received protection and reciprocal care.
The servitor, on the other hand, may correspond more to our modern concept of servant, since he was the one who served, or ministered to, another. However, again, we must not necessarily equate this with a menial position, although, of course, it could well have been one, and often was. But the point is that it did not have to be so. It may merely mean "one in waiting," or the person who is available to serve in whatever capacity is required. And that, too, is still true today.
27. I Didn't Know How to Teach Until I Met You
Illustration
Keith Wagner
There is a story many years ago of an elementary teacher. Her name was Mrs. Thompson. And as she stood in front of her fifth grade class on the very first day of school, she told the children a lie. Like most teachers, she looked at her students and said that she loved them all the same. But that was impossible, because there in the front row, slumped in his seat, was a little boy named Teddy Stoddard.
Mrs. Thompson had watched Teddy the year before and noticed that he didn't play well with the other children, that his clothes were messy and he constantly needed a bath. And Teddy could be unpleasant. It got to the point where Mrs. Thompson would actually take delight in marking his papers with a broad red pen, making bold X's and then putting a big "F" at the top of his papers.
At the school where Mrs. Thompson taught, she was required to review each child's past records and she put Teddy's off until last. However, when she reviewed his file, she was in for a surprise. Teddy's first grade teacher wrote, "Teddy is a bright child with a ready laugh. He does his work neatly and has good manners...he is a joy to be around." His second grade teacher wrote, "Teddy is an excellent student, well liked by his classmates, but he is troubled because his mother has a terminal illness and life at home must be a struggle." His third grade teacher wrote, "His mother's death has been hard on him. He tries to do his best but his father doesn't show much interest and his home life will soon affect him if some steps aren't taken." Teddy's fourth grade teacher wrote, "Teddy is withdrawn and doesn't show much interest in school. He doesn't have many friends and sometimes sleeps in class."
By now, Mrs. Thompson realized the problem and was ashamed of herself. She felt even worse when her students brought her Christmas presents, wrapped in beautiful ribbons and bright paper, except for Teddy's. His present was clumsily wrapped in the heavy, brown paper that he got from a grocery bag. Mrs. Thompson took pains to open it in the middle of the other presents. Some of the children started to laugh when she found a rhinestone bracelet with some of the stones missing and a bottle that was one quarter full of perfume. But she stifled the children's laughter when she exclaimed, how pretty the bracelet was. She put it on and dabbed some of the perfume on her wrist.
Teddy Stoddard stayed after school that day just long enough to say, "Mrs. Thompson, today you smelled just like my mom used to." After the children left she cried for at least an hour. On that very day, she quit teaching reading, writing, and arithmetic. Instead, she began to teach children.
Mrs. Thompson paid particular attention to Teddy. As she worked with him, his mind seemed to come alive. The more she encouraged him, the faster he responded. By the end of the year, Teddy had become one of the smartest children in the class and, despite her lie that she would love all the children the same, Teddy became one of her pets. A year later, she found a note under her door, from Teddy, telling her that she was still the best teacher he ever had in his whole life.
Six years went by before she got another note from Teddy. He then wrote that he had finished high school, third in his class, and she was still the best teacher he ever had in his whole life. Four years after that, she got another letter, saying that while things had been tough at times, he stayed in school, had stuck with it, and would soon graduate from college with the highest of honors. He assured Mrs. Thompson that she was still the best and favorite teacher he ever had in his whole life. Then four more years passed and yet another letter came. This time he explained that after he got his bachelor's degree, he decided to go a little further. The letter explained that she was still the best and favorite teacher he ever had. But now his name was a little longer. The letter was signed, Theodore F. Stoddard, MD.
The story doesn't end there. You see, there was yet another letter that spring. Teddy said he'd met a girl and was going to be married. He explained that his father had died a couple of years ago and he was wondering if Mrs. Thompson might agree to sit in the place at the wedding that was usually reserved for the mother of the groom.
Of course, Mrs. Thompson did. And guess what? She wore that bracelet, the one with several rhinestones missing. And she made sure she was wearing the perfume that Teddy remembered his mother wearing on their last Christmas together. They hugged each other, and Dr. Stoddard whispered in Mrs. Thompson's ear, "Thank you, Mrs. Thompson, for believing in me. Thank you so much for making me feel important and showing me that I could make a difference." Mrs. Thompson, with tears in her eyes, whispered back. She said, "Teddy, you have it all wrong. You were the one who taught me that I could make a difference. I didn't know how to teach until I met you."
28. Jesus the Sin Stealer
Illustration
Michael L. Cobbler
The primary emphasis of John's declaration is to say who Jesus is (the Lamb of God) and also to say what Jesus does (takes away the sin of the world). This is all well and good, but the old Adam in me gets nervous when I have an encounter with a "sin stealer." I want to be as graphic and as plain as I can be about this Jesus is the ultimate sin stealer, and that troubles me. You can certainly use language that describes this reality in different terms, like "Jesus removes our sins," or "Jesus washed my sins away," but Jesus "rips us off" as far as our corporate and personal sins are concerned. I am a witness to this, because I was reared by a sin stealer, my mother. Now Daddy was a "sin reactor and responder," and I was the not always grateful recipient of his reactions and responses, but Mama was the sin stealer, the one who had the spiritual discernment and psychology to see that I would live in the benefits of John's declaration and Jesus' action.
This sin stealing was shown most clearly on an early spring day long ago, when my mother had made my favorite lunch for school. It was a small container of chocolate milk, a peanut butter and jelly sandwich, and fresh-baked chocolate chip cookies. I went off to Public School 129, but a block and a half away, eager for the morning to pass so I could sink my teeth into one of those delicious cookies, but as I turned from Stuyvesant Ave on to Quincy Street I was face to face with Junebug, the bully of the block.
"Gimmie that lunch, punk!" he said.
"But, Junebug, that's my lunch."
"You better gimmie that lunch!"
"But it's mine. My Mom made it for me, and she made me my favorite ."
Junebug's right uppercut sent me and the lunch to the ground. He picked up the lunch and said, "That's what you get for not listening to me!" and went off to school. I also went off to school with no lunch and lots of anger.
At home that late afternoon I was very silent. Mama, knowing something was up, said, "What happened at school today?"
"I'm gonna kill him!"
"What?"
"I'm gonna kill him!"
"And who do you plan to kill?"
"Junebug. He beat me up, he stole my lunch, and I'm gonna kill him!"
Mama thought for awhile and then said, "Here, have some food. Don't start your homework right away there is something we need to do together, but you must do it as I say."
The next morning I saw Junebug in front of the school. He pointed to me and said, "Here is that punk who I stole cookies from yesterday!"
I walked up to him, handed him a bag and said, "Junebug, here are some cookies. They're for you. I and my mother made them."
"Whatta you mean, punk? Giving me cookies? I can take them from you anytime I want!"
"But we made them for you take them."
"Are they poison?"
"No, they're okay take them."
He took the bag from me and handed it to one of his buddies. "Hey, Bootsie, you try them."
"But they just may be poison," said Bootsie.
"Try them anyway, already! They just may be good!"
After one bite, and Bootsie still standing, Junebug passed out the cookies to his buddies, saying, "The punk has brought me, Junebug, some cookies! Isn't that great!"
The next day, I saw Junebug during recess. I walked up to him, gave him a bag and said, "Junebug, here are some more cookies. Take them, they're free."
"Are you messing with me, man? Are you messing with me? These are the ones that are poison! Yesterday was just to set me up!"
"Don't worry, Junebug. They're just fine." He took the bag and backed away from me with a terrified look on his face.
The following day, I saw Junebug in the cafeteria. I said, "Junebug, here are some more cookies. Enjoy them!"
"How can I enjoy cookies if you keep on giving them to me! Now cut it out, man! I didn't even finish yesterday's cookies! No more cookies! (He took the bag anyway.)
On the next day, I saw Junebug at the end of school. I walked up to him and said, "Junebug, here are...." He took one look at that bag of cookies and turned running and screaming all the way down Quincy Street. I haven't even had the notion of taking someone's life ever since. Because Jesus is a sin stealer, My mom stole my intention to sin.
29. Historic: The Declaration of Independence
Illustration
Staff
The unanimous Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies in Congress, July 4, 1776
When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to affect their Safety and Happiness.
Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed.
But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain [George III] is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained, and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies, without the consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
- For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
- For protecting them by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
- For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
- For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
- For depriving us in many cases of the benefits of Trial by Jury:
- For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
- For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
- For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
- For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circ*mstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms. Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren.
- We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us.
- We have reminded them of the circ*mstances of our emigration and settlement here.
- We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence.
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by the authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare.
That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.
And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.
The signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows:
- New Hampshire: Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton
- Massachusetts: John Hanco*ck, Samual Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry
- Rhode Island: Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery
- Connecticut: Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott
- New York: William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris
- New Jersey: Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark
- Pennsylvania: Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross
- Delaware: Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean
- Maryland: Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton
- Virginia: George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton
- North Carolina: William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn
- South Carolina: Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton
- Georgia: Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton
Background
On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia in the Pennsylvania State House (now Independence Hall), approved the Declaration of Independence. Its purpose was to set forth the principles upon which the Congress had acted two days earlier when it voted in favor of Richard Henry Lee's motion to declare the freedom and independence of the 13 American colonies from England. The Declaration was designed to influence public opinion and gain support both among the new states and abroad especially in France, from which the new "United States" sought military assistance.
Although Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman and Robert R. Livingston comprised the committee charged with drafting the Declaration, the task fell to Jefferson, regarded as the strongest and most eloquent writer. The document is mainly his work, although the committee and Congress as a whole made a total of 86 changes to Jefferson's draft.
As a scholar well-versed in the ideas and ideals of the French and English Enlightenments, Jefferson found his greatest inspiration in the language and arguments of English philosopher John Locke, who had justified England's "Glorious Revolution" of 1688 on the basis of man's "natural rights." Locke's theory held that government was a contract between the governed and those governing, who derived their power solely from the consent of the governed and whose purpose it was to protect every man's inherent right to property, life and liberty. Jefferson's theory of "natural law" differed in that it substituted the inalienable right of "the pursuit of happiness" for "property," emphasizing that happiness is the product of civic virtue and public duty. The concept of the "pursuit of happiness" originated in the Common Sense School of Scottish philosophy, of which Lord Kames was the best-known proponent.
Jefferson emphasized the contractual justification for independence, arguing that when the tyrannical government of King George III of England repeatedly violated "natural law, " the colonists had not only the right but the duty to revolt.
The assembled Continental Congress deleted a few passages of the draft, and amended others, but outright rejected only two sections: 1) a derogatory reference to the English people; 2) a passionate denunciation of the slave trade. The latter section was left out, as Jefferson reported, to accede to the wishes of South Carolina and Georgia, who wanted to continue the importation of slaves. The rest of the draft was accepted on July 4, and 56 members of Congress began their formal signing of the document on August 2, 1776.
30. Unwise and Wise Living
Illustration
William R. Baker
Jewish rabbis tell a poignant story that drives home the point of Proverbs 18:21. As the story goes (and five versions of this appear in Greek literature), Rabbi Simeon ben Gamaliel one day asked his servant to go to buy some good food for him in the market. When the servant returned home, he presented the rabbi with a tongue.
The next day, the rabbi told the servant to go to the market to buy some bad food. Again, the servant returned with a tongue.
When the rabbi asked the servant why he returned with a tongue both times, the servant made this astute observation: "Good comes from it and bad comes from it. When the tongue is good, there is nothing better, and when it is bad, there is nothing worse."
31. Right Questions
Illustration
James W. Moore
I am a collector of lists. I want to share with you this morning my favorite list of all time. It's a list of answers given by English school children on their religion exams.
Noah's wife was called Joan of the Ark.
A myth is a female moth.
Sometimes it is difficult to hear in church because the agnostics are so terrible.
The Pope lives in a vacuum.
The Fifth Commandment is "Humor your father and mother."
This is my favorite of all:
Lot's wife was a pillar of salt by day and a ball of fire by night.
The point is: right answers are important, but have you thought about this - so are right questions! So the right question I want to raise with you today is this: How long has it been since you had a powerful moment that changed your life forever?
32. The Greatest Sentence Ever Written
Illustration
Mark Trotter
A teacher, every year in her fifth grade class, had what she called the Scholastic Olympics. What happened was that she would ask each child to pick a sentence from literature, name the author and source from which it came, and then explain why this sentence could be called the most important sentence ever written. You can probably guess what some of the entries were, like "Fourscore and seven years ago," and "All people are created equal." A lot of political phrases like that. There were also a lot of literary phrases, like "To be or not to be." The girl who got the most points for knowing that "To be or not to be" was from a play got some points taken away because she said the author was a writer for the Bill Cosby Show.
There were fourteen entries of the same biblical verse, "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth," probably because the teacher had said that was her favorite verse.
You know what sentence won? It was not written by a famous author at all. It wasn't to be found in any literary source. It appeared on a postcard from Hawaii that one of these fifth grade girls received from her stepfather, who was on a honeymoon with the girl's mother. The teacher was uneasy about this, because the children were supposed to explain why this is the most important sentence ever written. But she let her speak. The girl said that until she received that postcard, she didn't know how her stepfather felt about her. The girl's entry won the prize. It was written on the back of a postcard from Waikiki Beach . It said, " Charlotte, I love you."
That's the greatest sentence ever written. And there are many variations of it. And wherever it is heard, and from whatever source it comes, it constitutes a blessing. It is here in this text this morning. It's here in the parable of the Prodigal Son, and it's addressed to everyone. To sons and to daughters, to prodigals and to the righteous: "Come home. I love you."
33. Symbols of the Greater Gift
Illustration
Andrew Wyermann
Pastor Andrew Wyermann told about a Christmas celebration in a nursing home. Listen to his story:I asked the folks to tell us about their favorite Christmas experience. The group seemed to light up. Spontaneously one by one they told their Christmas story. Each was different except in one respect. Every experience was taken from their childhood. They did not remember Christmas as a parent, but as a child.
Then I turned the question on myself. I, too, returned to my childhood.
The first, and perhaps most memorable, experience I recalled took place when I was seven years old. Early Christmas Eve, my mother took my brother and me out for a treat. It was her way to get us out of our fifth-floor apartment in the Bronx while my father prepared for the evening festivity.
As we climbed the stairs back to the apartment, the shrill sound of a whistle filled the hallway. What was that, and where did it come from? Our pace quickened and a second burst of the whistle could be heard. We dashed into the apartment. There was my father playing engineer with the biggest Lionel train ever made. It was so magnificent, so unexpected, so wonderful!
Some fifty years later, I still have the train set and cherish it as much as any material gift I ever received from my parents. The train is a warm reminder of the greater gift my parents gave me. This gift has nothing to do with any material advantages, or even with any piece of sage advice. Unconditional love was their gift. I never doubted their care for me, and from such grace sprang my own capacity to truth.
It was years later that I fully understood the gift my parents gave me had its source in God's gift of the Child to us all. The sound of the whistle and the song of the angels have become one and the same. They are both the signal of God's love.
34. Human Government
Illustration
Charles Colson
Though it is hard to pen scripture down on exactly what role government has in the Christian'slife, the following is offered as a starting point: The general function of human government, as instituted by God, may be said to be threefold: to protect, punish, and promote.
- The Function of Protection: The moment Adam sinned it was obvious that civilizations would need some form of restraint and rule to protect citizens from themselves. An example of this function is seen in Acts 21:27-37 where Roman soldiers step in and save Paul from being murdered by his own enraged countrymen in Jerusalem.
- The Function of Punishment: Both Paul and Peter bring this out. Paul writes that duly appointed human officials are to be regarded as God's servants to "bear the sword," that is, to impose punishment upon criminals (vv. 3,4). Peter tells us that governors are "sent by him for the punishment of evildoers" (1 Pet 2:13, 14).
- The Function of Promotion: Human government is to promote the general welfare of the community where its laws are in effect. Paul commands us to pray for human leaders "that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and honesty" (1 Tim 2:1,2). New King James Version Notes, Thomas Nelson, p. 1152
Converesly, we have a responsibility tohuman government.It is impossible for a believer to be a good Christian and a bad citizen at the same time. As children of God our responsibility to human government is threefold:
- We are to recognize and accept that the powers that be are ordained by God. "Let every soul be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except from God, and the authorities that exist are appointed by God." (Rom 13:1) This truth applies even to atheistic human governments unless, of course, the law is anti- scriptural. In that situation the believer must obey God rather than man (Acts 4:18-20). In fact, when Paul wrote those words in Romans 13:1, the evil emperor Nero was on the throne. See also Titus 3:1.
- We are to pay our taxes to human government (Matt 17:24-7; 22:21, Rom 13:7).
- We are to pray for the leaders in human government. "Therefore I exhort first of all that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and giving of thanks be made for all men, for kings and all who are in authority, that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and reverence. For this is good and acceptable in the sight of God our Savior" (1 Tim 2:1-3). New King James Version Notes, Thomas Nelson, p. 1270
We are to take responsibility for the right ordering of civil society without falling prey to the idea that it is within our power to build the Kingdom of God on earth.
35. Good Communion Table Manners
Illustration
Alex Gondola
As we come to the Lord's Table, we're all sinners in need of salvation, beggars needing bread. We are "the poor, the crippled, the lame, and the blind" in that third story. Maybe not literally poor, crippled, lame, and blind, but spiritually poor, crippled, lame, and blind. Yet God graciously includes us as guests at God's Table. Good communion table manners include coming to the table without thinking too much of ourselves.
And, finally, good communion table manners include coming without looking down on any other guest, for all of us are God's equally beloved guests. King George IV desired Communion and sent a servant to bring the Bishop of Winchester. When the servant arrived with the Bishop, the King was angry. He felt his servant had taken too long. The King upbraided the man and fired him on the spot.
Having done that, he turned to the Bishop for Communion. But the Bishop refused to proceed. He saw that the King was still angry. Realizing the Bishop was right, the King called for his servant, apologized, and restored the man's job. Only then could Communion proceed. Part of good table manners is extending graciousness to the other guests. As we have been forgiven and welcomed by God, let us forgive and welcome each other.
36. Appointment in Samarra
Illustration
Editor James S. Hewett
Legend says that it happened in the streets of Damascus. A merchant sent his servant to the market. When the servant returned, trembling and agitated, he said, "While I was at the market, I was jostled by someone in the crowd. I turned to look and saw that Death had jostled me. She looked at me and made a threatening gesture. Master, please lend me your horse so I can escape. I want to ride to Samarra. There I will hide so that Death cannot find me."
Later that same day the merchant himself was in the marketplace, and he also saw Death in the crowd. He said to her, "Why did you startle my servant this morning by making a threatening gesture?"
Death replied, "That was no threatening gesture; it was simply a start of surprise. I was startled to see your servant in Damascus, for we have an appointment tonight in Samarra."
37. Love Is Something You Learn
Illustration
King Duncan
Sandra Palmer Carr in The Upper Room tells about rocking her younger son Boyd, then four years old, in a high-backed wooden rocking chair. Boyd was facing his Mom as they rocked, his legs folded at the knee.
Suddenly, he lifted his small head, stared straight at his mother, and became very still. Then he cupped her face in his tender little hands and said almost in a whisper, "Mommy, I'm in your eyes." He had seen his own reflection in his mother's eyes, and this strangely affected him. Mother and son stayed in that same position for several long moments as the rocking stopped and the room grew quiet. "And I'm in yours," his mother said. Then he leaned his head against her contentedly, and she resumed rocking and singing. Occasionally, in the days that followed, Boyd would check to see if his discovery was lasting. "Am I still in your eyes, Mommy?" he would ask as he reached up for her.
Boyd learned to love from his mom. Let me say that again: Boyd learned to love from his mom. Each of us learnto love the same way. From Mom. From Dad, from Grandparents, a favorite aunt. Each of us has our own story to tell. We saw ourselves in someone else's eyes.
But where did such love originate? The epistle of John tells us it originated with God who is the source of love. We love because God first loved us.
"In life's uncertain moments," writes Sandra Carr, "it is comforting to know I am still in my heavenly Father's eyes." Love is something you learn.
38. Custom Carnations
Illustration
Anna M. Jarvis (1864-1948) first suggested the national observance of an annual day honoring all mothers because she had loved her own mother so dearly. At a memorial service for her mother on May 10, 1908, Miss Jarvis gave a carnation (her mother's favorite flower) to each person who attended. Within the next few years, the idea of a day to honor mothers gained popularity, and Mother's Day was observed in a number of large cities in the U.S.
On May 9, 1914, by an act of Congress, President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed the second Sunday in May as Mother's Day. He established the day as a time for "public expression of our love and reverence for the mothers of our country." By then it had become customary to wear white carnations to honor departed mothers and red to honor the living, a custom that continues to this day.
39. What Will You Do with Your Gift?
Illustration
Susan R. Andrews
There is a folk tale from India that summarizes our thoughts this morning. It seems that there was a good king who ruled wisely and who ruled well. One day the king called his three daughters together and told them he was leaving on a long journey. "I wish to learn about God, so I will need to go away and spend a long time in prayer. In my absence I will leave the three of you in charge. Before I leave I would like to leave each of you with a gift; a gift I pray will help you learn how to wisely use your power to rule." Then he placed in each of their hands a single grain of rice.
The first daughter tied a long golden thread around her grain of rice and placed it in a beautiful crystal box. Every day she looked at it and reminded herself that she was powerful. The second daughter took one look at the common grain of rice, and threw it away, thus squandering her father's mysterious gift. The third daughter just looked at her grain of rice for a long, long time - until she finally understood what to do with it. She went outside and planted it in the ground. And it became a seed, giving life beyond itself, eventually turning into vast fields of hope and nourishment for others.
When the father returned years later, he asked his three daughters what they had done with their grains of rice. Though he was polite to his first two daughters, he did not respond to their explanations with much enthusiasm. It was only after the king saw the fields of grain resulting from his third daughter's wisdom that he responded with delight. Taking the crown off his head, he placed it on hers, saying, "Beloved, you alone have learned the meaning of power." From that day forward, the youngest daughter ruled the kingdom. She ruled long, and she ruled wisely, and she ruled well.
Brothers and sisters, this day as we remember the blessings and power of our baptism, as we set apart brothers and sisters for particular tasks of ministry, I pray that all of us will continue to be God's delight - powerful servants - pouring out our power for the hope and nourishment of the world.
40. A Teddy Bear and Christmas
Illustration
Bill Bouknight
Jesus often taught by telling parables. These were simple, down-to-earth stories which expressed spiritual truth. Today, on this third weekend of Advent, I want to use a favorite Christmas story as a modern parable. This is a true story, told to me some ten years ago by Dr. Edward Bauman of Washington, D.C.
About 30 years ago a boy named Tony was born into a family in a Midwestern state. He was blind at birth. He suffered from an extremely rare eye problem for which there was no known cure. When the little fellow was about seven years old, his doctor read in the New England Journal of Medicine of a new surgical procedure that showed some promise for correcting this particular problem. A young surgeon at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston had developed it. The local doctor and the surgeon began communicating. The boy's full medical record was sent. A decision was made to try surgery. Since Tony's family could not afford the expenses involved, local churches and civic clubs helped out.
Tony had a favorite teddy bear which he kept with him almost all the time. This teddy bear had begun to show signs of wear. One eye was missing; one ear was chewed off; and through several holes the stuffing was oozing out. Tony's mother told him that she was going to buy him a new teddy bear to take to Boston. Tony rejected that offer in no uncertain terms. What good is a new teddy bear when you have an old, familiar, friendly one already broken in? So, the old teddy bear went to Boston and remained close to Tony through all the medical procedures leading up to surgery: the x-rays, tests, and consultations. In fact, the boy and his teddy bear were not separated until the anesthesia was applied.
Throughout this whole period the boy and the young surgeon were becoming great friends. In fact, the surgeon was almost as excited as the family about the possibilities of this surgery. Somehow there was a good chemistry of friendship and trust between physician and Tony. When the surgery was completed, Tony was heavily bandaged and had to remain quite still for a number of days. That is very hard for a 7 year old. But each day the surgeon was in an out of the room encouraging him.
Finally came the day for removing the bandages. For the first time in seven years of life, a little boy could see. Though the vision was blurred at first, it gradually clarified. For the first time Tony looked into the faces of his parents, saw a tree, and a sunset. The young surgeon was almost literally jumping up and down for joy.
Before long it was time for Tony to be discharged and to go home. The surgeon had been dreading this day because the two of them had become such good friends. On that final morning, the surgeon signed the necessary discharge papers. He gave Tony a big hug and said, "'Listen, I own stock in you. I expect to get letters from you regularly. Do you understand?"
Then Tony did something totally unexpected. He said to his surgeon friend, "I want you to have this," and handed him his teddy bear. The surgeon’s first impulse was to say, "Oh no, I can’t separate you two good friends." But something stopped him. With a flash of sensitive genius, the surgeon understood what Tony was trying to do. He wanted to give his dear surgeon-friend the most precious gift at his disposal, so full was his heart with love. The wise surgeon accepted the teddy bear with a hug and a thank-you, assuring Tony that he would take mighty good care of his friend.
For over ten years that teddy bear sat in a glass case on the tenth floor of Massachusetts General Hospital---one eye missing, one ear chewed half off, and stuffing oozing out of holes. In front of the teddy bear was the surgeon's professional name card. Just beneath his name he had written this caption: "This is the highest fee I have ever received for professional services rendered." A little boy had given the most precious item he had, out of a love-filled heart.
This is aparable of Christmas. 2000 years ago our gracious God, with a heart filled with love, looked out upon a sin-marred, tear-stained world. Had you and I been in charge we might have destroyed the whole mess and started over. But God's great heart was too full of love to allow that. So he gave us the most precious gift at his disposal; he gave himself. "For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not perish but have eternal life."
Confronted by such an awesome gift, our only fitting response is to fall on our knees and to enthrone the living Christ as our personal King of kings and Lord of lords.
41. I’ll Fix Anthony
Illustration
Judith Viorst
In Judith Viorst's children's book, "I'll Fix Anthony," the younger brother complains about the way his older brother Anthony treats him: "My brother Anthony can read books now, but he won't read any books to me. He plays checkers with Bruce from his school. But when I want to play he says, "Go away or I'll clobber you." I let him wear my Snoopy sweatshirt, but he never lets me borrow his sword. Mother says deep down in his heart Anthony loves me. Anthony says deep down in his heart he thinks I stink. Mother says deep deep down in his heart, where he doesn't even know it, Anthony loves me. Anthony says deep deep down in his heart he still thinks I stink. When I'm six I'll fix Anthony...When I'm six I'll float, but Anthony will sink to the bottom. I'll dive off the board, but Anthony will change his mind. I'll breathe in and out when I should, but Anthony will only go glug, glug...When I'm six my teeth will fall out, and I'll put them under the bed, and the tooth fairy will take them away and leave dimes. Anthony's teeth won't fall out. He'll wiggle and wiggle them, but they won't fall out. I might sell him one of my teeth, but I might not...Anthony is chasing me out of the playroom. He says I stink. He says he is going to clobber me. I have to run now, but I won't have to run when I'm six. When I'm six, I'll fix Anthony."
Can you see how these brothers are missing out? Instead of playing and romping, these boys are trapped in a negative cycle of jealousy, anger, and bullying. Can you just imagine how their relationship would change if Anthony read his favorite story to his younger brother? Or realized the person who is potentially his biggest fan in the whole world, is just about done with him for good? It sounds like the younger brother might be done turning the other cheek and is plotting his revenge, which only hurts both kids and poisons one of the most important relationships in both their lives.
42. The Peace of Christ in a World of Chaos - Sermon Starter
Illustration
Brett Blair
One of the best newspaper cartoons of all time is Calvin and Hobbes. One day Calvin and Hobbes come marching into the living room early one morning. His mother is seated there in her favorite chair. She is sipping her morning coffee. She looks up at young Calvin. She is amused and amazed at how he is dressed. Calvin's head is encased in a large space helmet. A cape is draped around his neck, across his shoulders, down his back and is dragging on the floor. One hand is holding a flashlight and the other a baseball bat.
"What's up today?" asks his mom.
"Nothing, so far," answers Calvin.
"So far?" she questions.
"Well, you never know," Calvin says, "Something could happen today." Then Calvin marches off, "And if anything does, by golly, I'm going to be ready for it!"
Calvin's mom looks out at the reading audience and she says, "I need a suit like that!"
That's the way many of us feel as we see the news and deal with life. Sometimes this world seems quite violent and people seem to be at each other's throats. A suit like that would help, so we can say with Calvin, "Whatever may come my way, I'm going to be ready for it! Bring it on!"
Well, I don't have a suit like Calvin's to give you this morning, but I do have word for this morning: Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid.
There is a defining phrase in that statement. One that tells us what kind of peace it is that Christ gives us. Listen to it again and see if you can pick it out: "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid." The defining phrase is: "Not as the world gives." Do you see how that defines God's peace? The world promises peace through the rule of law. Law and order is the only way for a society and a people to experience peace and law and order must be kept by the aggressive use of force. That's the only way that the world can bring about peace.
But here is how Jesus will give you peace. If you obey his word He and the Father will come to you and make a home with you. Right in your heart. Not by force but by choice. They will abide in your heart bringing peace. The world's peace is peace through strength. The Lord's peace is peace through surrender.
We have all been asked by our children: if you could have any wish what would it be? I think the most common answer given is world peace. Peace is important. Jesus makes a point to tell his disciples that he going to leave them with peace. Peace is part a vital part of our faith. Let's look a little closer at what Jesus means by peace:
1. First, there is the Peace the World Gives
2. Second, there is the Peace the Lord Gives
3. Third, there is the Obedience We Give
43. A Powerful Prayer
Illustration
Brett Blair
Pastor Joe Wright of Kansas was asked to lead the Kansas State Senate in prayer. They were expecting the usual formal prayer to open the session but that is not what happened. The pastor used the moment as a confessional and prophetic opportunity. As he prayed there were some senators who got up and walked out. When Paul Harvey (a national known radio news and editorialist) got a hold of the prayer and read it on his program he got more requests for copies of it than any other thing he had ever done.
Here's what Rev. Wright the prayed:
"Heavenly Father, we come before you today to ask Your forgiveness and to seek Your direction and guidance.
We know Your Word says, "Woe to those who call evil good," but that's exactly what we have done. We have lost our spiritual equilibrium and inverted our values. We confess that:
- We have ridiculed the absolute truth of Your Word and called it pluralism.
- We have worshipped other gods and called it multi-culturalism.
- We have endorsed perversion and called it an alternative lifestyle.
- We have exploited the poor and called it the lottery.
- We have neglected the needy and called it self-preservation.
- We have rewarded laziness and called it welfare.
- We have killed our unborn and called it a choice.
- We have shot abortionists and called it justifiable.
- We have neglected to discipline our children and called it building self-esteem.
- We have abused power and called it political savvy.
- We have coveted our neighbor's possessions and called it ambition.
- We have polluted the airwaves with profanity and called it freedom of expression.
- We have ridiculed the time-honored values of our forefathers and called it enlightenment.
Search us, O God, and know our hearts today; try us and see if there be some wicked way in us; cleanse us from every sin and set us free. Guide and bless these men and women who have been sent here by the people of Kansas, and who have been ordained by You, to govern this great state. Grant them Your wisdom to rule and may their decisions direct us to the center of Your will....Amen."
44. Wait for the Signal
Illustration
Marty Masten
In How Life Imitates the World Series, Dave Bosewell tells a story about Earl Weaver, former manager of the Baltimore Orioles. Sports fans will enjoy how he handled star Reggie Jackson.
Weaver had a rule that no one could steal a base unless given the steal sign. This upset Jackson because he felt he knew the pitchers and catchers well enough to judge who he could and could not steal off of. So one game he decided to steal without a sign.
He got a good jump off the pitcher and easily beat the throw to second base. As he shook the dirt off his uniform, Jackson smiled with delight, feeling he had vindicated his judgment to his manager.
Later Weaver took Jackson aside and explained why he hadn't given the steal sign. First, the next batter was Lee May, his best power hitter other than Jackson. When Jackson stole second, first base was left open, so the other team walked May intentionally, taking the bat out of his hands.
Second, the following batter hadn't been strong against that pitcher, so Weaver felt he had to send up a pinch hitter to try to drive in the men on base. That left Weaver without bench strength later in the game when he needed it.
The problem was, Jackson saw only his relationship to the pitcher and catcher. Weaver was watching the whole game. We, too, see only so far, but God sees the bigger picture. When he sends us a signal, it's wise to obey, no matter what we may think WE know.
45. A Servant Helping a World in Need
Illustration
Charles Hoffacker
In one of German writer Herman Hesse's books, Journey to the East, the central figure is man named Leo. Leo accompanies a party of travelers as their servant doing menial chores, but he also sustains them with his spirit and his song. He is a person of extraordinary presence. All goes well for the travelers until Leo disappears. Then the group falls into disarray; they abandon their journey. Without Leo they cannot make it.
The story's narrator, who is one of the travelers, wanders for years until he is taken into the order that had sponsored the journey. There he is surprised to discover that Leo, whom he had known as a servant, was in fact the head of the order, its guiding spirit, a great leader.
Christianity tells a similar story. Its central figure appears first as a poor child, then a man without worldly power. He moves among the poor, the marginalized, and the sick. He heals, teaches, encourages, and points to the kingdom of heaven. He is a person of extraordinary presence, a servant helping a world in need.
Throughout this story, the leadership of this remarkable figure becomes increasingly apparent. He sets food before the hungry, washes his followers' feet, accepts death on a cross, and is raised up in power and glory. He is manifest as both servant and leader to all who dare recognize him.
46. Meeting God
Illustration
Billy D. Strayhorn
Once there was a little boy who wanted to meet God. He knew it would be a long trip to where God lived, so he packed a suitcase full of Twinkies and cans of root beer (his two favorite foods) and set off on his journey. He had only gone a few blocks when he passed an older woman, sitting on a park bench and just staring at some pigeons. She looked sad and lonely, so the boy went over and sat down next to her. He opened his suitcase, took out a package of the Twinkies and offered it to her.
She gratefully took it and smiled at him. Her smile was so warm and wonderful that the boy wanted to see it again, so he offered her a can of his root beer. Once again, she took it and smiled at him. The boy was delighted. They sat there all afternoon, eating the Twinkies, drinking the root beers and watching the pigeons, without saying a word to each other.
As it grew dark, the boy realized that he had better get started home and got up to leave. But before he had just a few steps, he turned around, ran back to the older woman and gave her a big hug. She gave him the biggest smile of all.
When the boy got home, his mother noticed how happy he seemed. So she asked him what he had done all day. He told her: "I had lunch with God. And you know what? She has the most beautiful smile that I've ever seen."
Meanwhile, the older woman had returned to her home. Her son also noticed how happy and contented she seemed so he asked her what she had done that had made her so happy. She said to him: "I sat in the park and ate Twinkies with God. You know, he's much younger than I expected."
47. Parable of the Indian Chiefs
Illustration
Staff
Said the great red one, "I am a mighty chief, and I want my son to follow in my footsteps and rule a great people. I want my son to be mighty and strong like me."
Said the young chief, "I do not want to be like my father. He is cruel and selfish and he brags over victories he has not won. He makes himself great by stepping on little ones. There is no greatness for the hunter who shoots chipmunks."
It is true in our modern day that many sons do not wish to pattern their lives after their father's, for unless the greatness has been won by true victories and in honest values, the children of even the most humble are quick to see the braggart in his own deception.
If father says he was a great ball player, but won't play catch with the son; if mother says she was a great swimmer, but won't don a bathing suit, the achievements of the past are lost in the sounds of the wind.
True merit is found in the companionship of parents with their children and first hand lessons of love and instructions. The merit of God's goodness to men is always found faithful with each person, who communes with God, not merely because of the greatness of bible heroes of the past, but of the real joy and power that is found in fellowship with God among the living.
48. A Tickle in Our Ear
Illustration
Maxie Dunnam
A number of years ago there appeared in The Los Angeles Times a poignant story of a four and one-half year old girl named Katie Sleeman, a patient at Children's Hospital, who was dying of cancer. "She had originally been diagnosed as a seven-week-old baby with retinoblastoma a cancerous tumor in the eye. She lost both eyes, and despite the best that medical science could do for her, a tumor appeared near her brain and it could not be removed. So Katie suffered more hardship in her brief life than most of us do in all our years. But despite her hospitalization, all of the treatments and pain she suffered, she radiated love and joy for all. She was like a light on the 4th Floor West of Children's Hospital, for she had the time of her life, even though she was fully aware that she might die anytime. As she neared the end of her life, Katie talked a lot about going to Heaven. Because she could not see, touch became one of her means of communication. One of her favorite things was to snuggle close to her mother and rub her mother's ear. Not long before she died, Katie said to her mother with a smile, "When I am in Heaven, and you feel a tickle on your ear, it will be me telling you 'I love you, Mommy.'" (Donald Shelby, "Grace-Full Humor").
Does that make you smile, or feel teary? Want to cry? Or laugh? Either is appropriate. Because Jesus is preparing a place for us in his eternal kingdom, Katie could believe what she said. And if those who have gone before us can't "tickle our ear" as Katie suggested she would do with her mother, it is enough to know that our loved ones who have died in Christ, believing in him and trusting him for salvation those who have died in Christ are waiting with Christ to welcome us when our time comes to go home.
49. Too Easily Satisfied
Illustration
Scott Hoezee
Today as much as ever, people need to know that this kingdom is real and available. They need to see the joy and the possibilities of that kingdom in us. Because often people are too easily satisfied just to make do with what is quick and easy and cheap. People settle for sex or liquor or a rock band or the distractions provided by entertainment. They look to these things to save them, or at least to help them move forward in a grim world. But, as C.S. Lewis once wrote, we are far too easily satisfied. We're like a child who turns down an invitation for a day at the beach and chooses instead to stay sitting in a slum alley making mud pies just because the child really can't imagine how much better a day at the shore can be. "What could be better than making these slimy mud pies?" the child might think. Ah, if only he knew!
Or as Dallas Willard writes, when he was a boy, rural electrification was just happening and power lines were being strung throughout the countryside. But suppose even after the lines were up and running, suppose you ran across a house where the weary family still used only candles and kerosene lanterns for light, used scrub boards, ice chests, and rug beaters. A better life was waiting for them right outside their door, they were, not far from it, if only they would let themselves be hooked into the power lines. "My friends," you could proclaim, "electricity is at hand!" But suppose they just didn't trust it, thought it was too much of a hassle, and anyway didn't believe the promises that things might be easier with this newfangled juice running into their house. "If it's all the same to you, we'll stick with the old ways."
Maybe the kingdom is like that: it's here, not far away, it's real, it is right outside your door. The kingdom of God is at hand! A heart of love can help you draw near to it. Don't be so easily satisfied with the temporary pleasures of sex and money, power and food, cable TV and the wonders of technology. A better, exciting, hopeful, joyful kingdom of life is real. We need to be in the business of driving away the demons of doubt, despair, cynicism, arrogance, and anything else that hinders people from believing our message and so entering Jesus' kingdom. The kind of unclean spirits Jesus so routinely encountered have not gone off duty, my friends. Just look around. It is because they remain so real and powerful that we must proclaim and also live under the rule of God right now. The kingdom of God is at hand. We live knowing that this is true! We live to help others believe it, too.
50. An Answer To Prayer
Illustration
"Mom, why am I called Samuel?" The boy asked the question one day during the evening meal. Nervously she toyed with her dinner napkin. She hadn't dared tell anyone for fear that they would think her foolish. After all, she lives in the modern world, not the world populated by Old Testament characters. All of her friends knew that for years she had tried everything possible in order to be able to have children.
First there were the specialists who insisted on taking all sorts of tests, making all sorts of observations, and trying to figure out what the biological impediment was. Then there were the endless sessions with counselors trying to find out whether or not there were emotional blocks. Other counselors had indicated that perhaps her concerns about her husband were interfering with conception. The list of tests and the observations seemed to go on without end.
Almost unconsciously she kept going to church. Every week she would be in her regular place. Every week she sang the hymns, prayed the prayers and joined in the celebrations of the church. She also prayed silently that God would be able to work a miracle. Yes, she had a certain amount of trust in the miracles of science and medicine. She would hardly have been willing to discount the insights of psychologists. But if anyone had bothered to ask her what she really trusted she would have had to say that she really trusts in the power of God.
Among some of her friends this was a little too much. "Surely you don't think that prayer itself will make much difference, do you?" they would ask. "Surely you don't intend on trusting something you can't see or measure?" said others. In fact, she had overheard one acquaintance suggest that perhaps she was getting a little too involved in the church.
Nevertheless, she kept her doctor appointments and remained active in the church.
At length she and her husband received the great, long-anticipated news. Her pregnancy test revealed that she would indeed have a baby.
The name, what should the child's name be? Should they name the child after a favorite aunt? an uncle? perhaps a friend. No, the now-expectant mother knew what the child's name would be. It would have to come from the Bible, maybe the Old Testament. If it's a boy, then Samuel would be his name.
Years later, when the boy had gotten old enough to wonder, he asked one day, "Mom, why is my name Samuel?" her answer came softly, "Son, everyone else may say that you are the result of modern science and medicine. But your father and I are convinced that you are a gift from God. So we called you Samuel which means 'I have asked of the Lord,' You are an answer to prayer."
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- UK tribunal member rebuked for bias in Christian teacher’s case: 'Undermining trust'
- Jeremiah Johnson’s brother claims he faked pro-Trump prophecies, visions
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- Iranian 'surprise' attack on Israel could 'even last three to four days,' says Iranian lawmaker
- Died: Patricia Gundry, Evangelical Feminist Who Wanted Women to Be Free
- Some Churches Lose Coverage as Insurers Hit by a Wave of Storm Claims
- The Olympics’ Most Iconic Photo Has a Christian Message
- Died: Doris Brougham, Missionary Who Taught English to Taiwan
- Walz’s Brand Is More Left than Lutheran Among Minnesota Evangelicals
- Why Changes to India’s Colonial Criminal Code Concern Christians
- Gordon College Loses Religious Liberty Case for Loan Forgiveness
- Yes, Fiji Olympians Are Singing Hymns
- Churches Find a Homelessness Solution in Their Own Backyards
- Venezuelan Churches Brace for Migration Wave After Disputed Maduro Election
- A woman dies after being caught in a baggage carousel, and more shocking news
- Prominent German cantor and opera singer is killed in what police say was a family dispute
- 4 Signs That A Marriage Is Sure To End In Divorce—By A Psychologist
- Queenie Hallegua, second-to-last Jewish resident of historic Indian Jewish community, dies at 89
- 'Miracle' discovered in church as Virgin Mary statue is pictured 'blinking' by worshippers
- More Churches Up in Flames in Canada as Outrage Against Catholic Church Grows
- To the Left, Now Even Viewpoint Diversity Is ‘White Supremacy’
- We Were Born To Win This War
- Stretched 12 inches on the rack, crushed in iron maidens… or killed with an 'anal pear': Terrifying...
- The Druze Religion, Explained
- Where is the Most Religious Place in the World?
- Bigoted Kamala Harris and Her Long History of Faith-Based Discrimination
- Why the Temple Curtain was Torn in Two When Jesus Died
- Parishes Preparing Their People for...What Exactly?
- 10 Years After Ferguson: What Does It Mean to Be the Church?
- You Cannot Lie Your Way to the Truth
- American Gen Z: Depressed and Spiritually Hungry
- Time to Reclaim Jewish Indigeneity
- Case Dismissed Against Man Charged in Death of Synagogue Leader
- New Book Explores Richard Nixon's Religious Journey
